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New Chemistry : Boyle’s Challenge to Aristotle: Boyle (1627–91) rejected Aristotle’s four-element theory (air, earth, fire, water) through experiments. Experiments with Wood: Burned wood to show that smoke was not air. Liquid oozing from burning wood was not ordinary water. Flames...

New Chemistry : Boyle’s Challenge to Aristotle: Boyle (1627–91) rejected Aristotle’s four-element theory (air, earth, fire, water) through experiments. Experiments with Wood: Burned wood to show that smoke was not air. Liquid oozing from burning wood was not ordinary water. Flames varied depending on the material burned, indicating fire was not pure. Ash left behind was not classified as earth. Conclusions from Experiments: Demonstrated that wood could not be reduced to the four classical elements. Noted that substances like gold couldn’t be further broken down; they returned to their original state when cooled. Recognition of Complexity: Boyle acknowledged that everyday materials (e.g., wooden tables, woolen clothing) consisted of various components, surpassing the classical elemental classification. Air as a Complex Substance: By the seventeenth century, many recognized that air was not a simple substance. Lavoisier’s Contribution (1789): Published “Elements of Chemistry,” the first modern chemistry textbook. Defined elements as basic units of matter that cannot be broken down. Dalton’s Atomic Theory: John Dalton (1766–1844) introduced the term “atom” for the smallest unit of matter, viewing atoms as tiny, solid particles. Atoms could form compounds existing in different states (solid, liquid, gas) based on temperature. Dalton’s Work (1808): Published “A New System of Chemical Philosophy,” which included a list of estimated atomic weights. New Geology : Discovery of Dinosaur Bones: In the early nineteenth century, the discovery of dinosaur bones significantly advanced scientific understanding. Earth’s Age Realization: Geologists and the public began to recognize that the Earth is much older than previously thought. -191 - Palaeontology: The term ‘palaeontology’ was coined in France in 1822 to describe the study of [151 fossils. ,T Definition of Fossils: Fossils are outlines of once-living animals and plants that have petrified under the right conditions. Modern Meaning of ‘Fossil’: The modern definition of ‘fossil’ emerged in the eighteenth century, referring specifically to petrified remains. Georges Cuvier’s Contribution: French scientist Georges Cuvier (1769–1832) argued for the extinction of certain animals after examining the remains of a woolly mammoth found in Siberia. Acceptance of Extinction: Acceptance of extinct species facilitated naturalists’ understanding of the growing number of fossil discoveries. Mary Anning’s Discoveries: Mary Anning (1799–1847) and her brother Joseph collected and sold fossils, discovering significant specimens, including: The skull and bones of a creature later named Ichthyosaurus (meaning “fish-lizard”). Another fossil resembling a giant turtle, named Plesiosaurus (meaning “nearly a reptile”). Gideon Mantell’s Discoveries: In the 1820s, Gideon Mantell (1790–1852) discovered: Unique teeth leading to the identification of Iguanodon (meaning “having a tooth like an iguana”). An armored dinosaur named Hylaeosaurus, indicating that some dinosaurs were terrestrial. Dinosaur Definition: The term ‘dinosaur’ was first used in 1842, meaning “fearfully great lizard.” Continued Discoveries: New dinosaur species continued to be discovered both in England and globally. Integration into Earth’s History: These discoveries were incorporated into the general history of life on Earth, with their ages estimated based on the geological layers in which they were found. New Biology : Early Microscopes: Compound microscopes were invented around 1595, before Leeuwenhoek Og9 & (1632–1723) was born. His contemporaries, like Robert Hooke and Jan Swammerdam, made important discoveries using them. Leeuwenhoek’s Innovations: J Skilled in grinding lenses, he created microscopes that magnified over 200 times, producing clearer images than others. 19 In 1673, he began corresponding with the Royal Society of London, sharing his observations, including those of bee stings. - > Observations on Dental Plaque:ye On September 17, 1683, he described living microorganisms in dental plaque, noting their movement and behavior. He was among the first to observe bacteria and discovered blood cells and living sperm cells. -8- Xavier Bichat’s Contributions: 57 982. 256142 Investigated human body tissues, earning the title “father of histology.” = 550 He was skeptical of microscopes and preferred using a simple magnifying glass. f ↳ na Advancements in Microscopy: By the late 1820s, technical problems with compound microscopes were being resolved in - >59 France and Britain, improving their reliability. Cell Theory Development: -xi - In the 1830s, German scientists Schleiden and Theodor Schwann established that all plants and animals are composed of cells, which are essential for various life functions. Robert Brown discovered that every cell contains a nucleus, leading to the acceptance of the nucleus as a key cellular component. Protoplasm: The material within cell walls was termed “protoplasm,” viewed as the living substance giving life to cells. -55 im Spontaneous Generation: The belief that life can arise from non-living matter was prevalent, - with organic matter thought to generate life forms like maggots. j(4) Louis Pasteur’s Work: is #S. Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation and demonstrated that all cells originate from other cells. · 24 Alongside Robert Koch, he showed that infectious diseases were caused by microbes, challenging long-held beliefs about disease origins. Acceptance of New Theories: The new germ theory gained widespread acceptance in the mid- nineteenth century, requiring significant shifts in public understanding of health and disease. Science mid of Nineteenth Century : Scientific Revolution: The period between Copernicus and Galileo, along with other scientists, transformed the understanding of the universe, moving away from the Earth-centric view. 251418592 New Discoveries: Advances in anatomy, physiology, chemistry, and physics highlighted that ancient knowledge was incomplete. gN Reflection on Science: People began to contemplate the nature of science itself, questioning: The best methods for conducting scientific inquiry. How to ensure the accuracy of new discoveries. pli Ways to leverage science for improved comfort, health, and happiness. Natural philosophy and Science : 255 Origin of the Term “Science”: The term was popularized by British philosopher William Whewell (1794–1866) and is derived from “scientia,” meaning “knowledge” or “knowing.” Natural Philosophy: Early thinkers like Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Copernicus, and Newton were known as “natural philosophers” who studied nature. Definition of Natural Philosophy: It focuses on understanding the universe, its functions, and its purpose. g Definition of Science: It emphasizes studying the universe through experiments and observations. Pierre Simon de Laplace: A prominent figure in French science for fifty years, contributing to the understanding of a mechanistic universe. 19552 Scientific Approach: Emphasizes questioning authorities and that knowledge should be acquired through experiments and observation. Mathematical Explanation of the Universe: The universe can be explained mathematically, indicating a structured and predictable nature. i 9.0 d