Prosocial Behaviour: Doing What's Best for Others (PDF)

1 c h a p t e r 9 – PROSOCIAL BEHVAIOUR: DOING 22222222 WHAT’S BEST FOR OTHERS. social psychology a south African perspective 2nd edition explain how reciprocity, social responsibility, equity, and equality create different motivations to help...

1 c h a p t e r 9 – PROSOCIAL BEHVAIOUR: DOING 22222222 WHAT’S BEST FOR OTHERS. social psychology a south African perspective 2nd edition explain how reciprocity, social responsibility, equity, and equality create different motivations to help others. compare and contrast the different kinds of prosocial behaviours, such as cooperation, forgiveness, obedience, conformity, and trust. analyse the different explanations and motives for helping. describe who is most likely to help and who is most likely to receive help. explain the five steps of bystander intervention. discuss the ways to increase helping. 9.1 is helping contagious?  Howard Zinn notes that people can and do behave magnificently.  these acts can include giving time and money to help other individuals.  these acts can go beyond donating material goods & can involve risking people’s own lives – recent research has even shown that cooperative behaviour can be contagious, passing from person to person to person. 9.2 what is prosocial behaviour? (def) prosocial behaviour – defined as doing something that is good for other people or for 22222222 society as a whole. prosocial behaviour includes behaviour that respects others or that allows society to operate.  culture is a whole that is more than the sum of its parts, but culture will only be able to provide its benefits if people cooperate and follow the rules.  prosocial behaviour builds relationships.  it is the opposite of antisocial behaviour, which means doing something bad for others or for society – antisocial behaviour usually destroys relationships.  when social psychology textbooks discuss conformity, obedience, and other forms of following the rules, the textbooks suggest that these are bad things.  it is true that obedience and conformity can be bad – mindless obedience to a leader such as Hitler can produce all sorts of terrible consequences.  for the most part, however, obedience and conformity are good things.  society would collapse if people didn’t follow most of the rules most of the time. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  2  for example, consider what would happen if people decided to ignore traffic rules, such as “stop”. “no entry”, “yield”, and “speed limit” signs.  traffic accidents and fatalities would increase sharply!  likewise, imagine what would happen if most people just took things from shops without paying, or ignored the tax laws, or if restaurant employees did not wash their hands after using the bathroom, or if grocery stores disobeyed health regulations and sold rotten food.  obeying the rules, conforming to socially accepted standards of proper behaviour, and cooperating with others are important forms of prosocial behaviour.  helping – which most social psychology textbooks treat as the primary form of prosocial behaviour – is actually something of an “extra” or a luxury.  the spirit of “paying it forward” is admired but society could function just fine without it.  more broadly, society and culture can still bring immense benefits if people do not perform altruistic, self-sacrificing acts of helping.  if no one obeys the rules, however, society will fall apart, and chaos will reign.  following rules is essential.  helping is less essential, though helping does make the world a much nicer place, and some forms of helping (such as what parents do for their small children) are probably vital for the survival of the species.  we rely on other people to follow their own self-interest while obeying the rules.  they sell us their food in exchange for our money, which is good for them and for us.  no helping or self-sacrifice on their part is necessary, but it is vital that they obey the rules by not selling us spoiled meat or committing fraudulent acts. imagine two societies, one in which people are happy and healthy, and another in which people are fearful, poor, and desperate. what might account for the difference? the happy society is probably full of people the unhappy society is probably full of who cooperate with each other, respect people who break the rules; its social life is each other, follow the rules, and contribute marked by crime, corruption, distrust, to the general welfare. betrayal, and wide-ranging general insecurity. a society in which people respect and follow the rules is said to have an effective rule of law. (def) rule of law – when members of a society (including its most powerful leaders) respect 22222222 and follow its rules. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  3  if there are no laws, or if laws exist but are widely ignored and disobeyed, the rule of law is said to be lacking.  the rule of law may occasionally annoy us, such as when you get a speeding ticket, but in reality, the rule of law is usually a huge boost to the quality of life.  if you lived in a society where the rule of law had broken down, or had not yet appeared, you would find life hard and dangerous.  researchers have found a positive correlation between happiness and rule of law, across many societies. other societal factors may also affect prosocial behaviour: South Africa is a country with a high rate of HIV and AIDS infections, and this has led to a high number of children losing one or both parents to the virus and its consequences. researchers at the University of the Free State in Bloemfontein, South Africa, conducted research with children who had lost one or both parents to HIV and AIDS. the purpose of the research was to determine the role of school connectedness in the relationship between prosocial behaviour and classroom peer relations among Sesotho-speaking HIV and AIDS orphans aged 7 to 11 years. for the purpose of the study, the orphans completed questionnaires measuring internal school connectedness, external school connectedness and prosocial behaviour and classroom peer relationships. the results of the study showed significantly high scores on internal and external school connectedness. this was attributed to the idea that school and friends restore some normality and well-being in these orphans. the results also showed that internal school connectedness fosters prosocial behaviour, which can be associated with better peer relations.  prosocial behaviour can also be influenced by experiences.  the aspects of prosocial behaviour that can be experienced is maturity, resilience, positivity, confidence, and sociability. what are other predictors of prosocial behaviour? 1. connectedness. 2. fairness. 3. justice = important factors in predicting prosocial behaviour. if employees perceive the company, they work for to be fair and just, they are more likely to be good “company citizens”. they are more likely to voluntarily help others in the workplace and more likely to promote the excellence of their employer, without any promise of reward Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  4 for these behaviours. the crucial point is that people behave better when they think the rules are fair.  the presence of others can stimulate prosocial behaviour, such as when someone acts more properly because other people are watching.  dogs will stay off the furniture and out of the trash when their owners are present, but they happily break those rules when alone.  humans may have more of a conscience, but they also still respond to the presence or absence of others.  public circumstances generally promote prosocial behaviour.  one important reason for generous helping is to make (or sustain) a good impression on those who are watching.  one purpose of prosocial behaviour, especially at cost to self, is to get yourself accepted into the group, so doing prosocial things without recognition is less beneficial.  self-interest determines that you will act prosocially if it helps you belong to the group.  that is probably why prosocial behaviour increases when others are watching.  other studies have shown that favours increase compliance in both private and public settings, but compliance is greater in public settings.  it may seem cynical to say that people’s prosocial actions are motivated by wanting to make a good impression, but we can also see this pattern in a positive light.  people travel a long road to social acceptance.  people do many things to get others to like them, and prosocial behaviour is no exception. 9.2.1 born to reciprocate: (def) reciprocity – the obligation to return in kind what another has done for us.  folk wisdom recognises reciprocity with such sayings as “you scratch my back, and i’ll scratch yours”.  reciprocity norms are found in all cultures in the world.  if I do something for you, and you don’t do anything back for me, I’m likely to be upset or offended, and next time around I may not do something for you. if you do something for me, and I don’t reciprocate, I’m likely to feel guilty about it.  the reciprocity norm is so powerful that it even applies to situations in which you do not ask for the favour.  for example - when somebody sends you a card, you feel obligated to send one back.  most often people consider reciprocity to be direct – you help someone who may help you later.  however, scientists have argued that some reciprocity may be indirect – help someone and receive help from someone else, even strangers who know you only through reputation.  helping someone or refusing to help has an impact on one’s reputation within the group. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  5  we all know people who are consistently helpful, and others who are not. does reciprocity apply to seeking help as well as giving help?  often you might need or want help, but you might not always accept help and certainly might not always seek it out.  people’s willingness to request or accept help often depends on whether they think they will be able to pay it back (reciprocity).  if they don’t think they can pay the helper back, they are less willing to let someone help them.  this is especially a problem among the elderly because their declining health and income can prevent them from reciprocating.  as a result, elderly people may refuse to ask for help even when they need it, simply because they believe they will not be able to pay it back.  when someone helps you, you probably feel grateful for the assistance. (def) gratitude – a positive emotion that results from the perception that one has benefited 22222 from the costly, intentional, voluntary action of another person.  people often have an acute sense of fairness when they are on the receiving end of someone else’s generosity or benevolence, and they prefer to accept help when they think they can pay the person back. 9.2.2 born to be fair:  human beings are cultural animals, that the impulse to belong to culture is in our genes.  fairness is a cultural norm. (def) norms – standards established by society to tell its members what types of behaviour 222222 are typical or expected.  norms that promote fairness can have an important influence on whether people contribute to the common good. two norms that promote fairness are: 1. equity. 2. equality. (def) equity – the idea that each person receives benefits in proportion to what they 22222222 contribute (the person who does the most work gets the highest pay) (def) equality – the idea that everyone gets the same amount, regardless of what they 222222 contribute.  both kinds of fairness are used and understood much more widely by humans than by any other animal. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  6  according to some evolutionary theories, an individual’s ability to reproduce depends largely on their position within the social group.  in order to maintain fitness-enhancing relationships, the individual must continually invest time, energy, and resources in building good relationships with others in the social group.  if you take without giving something back, you run the risk that others might resent you and might ultimately reject or exclude you from the group.  after all, few groups can afford to have lots of members (other than babies, perhaps) who take and take without contributing anything.  it will be hard to pass on your genes to the next generation when the people you want to mate with avoid you.  people are designed by nature (so to speak) to belong to a system based on fairness and social exchange.  as one sign of the importance of fairness to human nature, the feeling that you have no value to others – that you are a taker rather than a giver – is a major cause of depression.  to be sure, there are plenty of obnoxious people who take more than they give, but most of them don’t see themselves that way.  people who do see themselves as taking more than they give may become depressed.  to avoid depression, people may seek to contribute their fair share.  some suicides may reflect the same concern with being fair and reciprocal.  human beings differ from most other animals in that they commit suicide.  one reason some people commit suicide is that they think they are a burden on other people – that others do things for them that they cannot reciprocate, so the others would be better off if they were dead.  of course, people are not better off when someone commits suicide.  suicide has numerous negative effects on those left behind.  not only do the survivors miss the dead person, but they may also even blame themselves for the suicide.  the concern with fairness makes people feel bad when they don’t contribute their fair share, but it can also affect people who think that their good performance makes others feel bad.  when we outperform others, we may have mixed emotions.  on the one hand, we may feel a sense of pride and pleasure because we have “beaten” the competition.  on the other hand, we may feel fear and anxiety because those we have outperformed might reject us or retaliate.  interpersonal concern about the consequences of outperforming others has been called sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison. (def) sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison – interpersonal concern about the consequences of outperforming others. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  7  outperformers often become distressed when they believe that others are envious that they did not perform as well.  in reality, however, losers have more to worry about than winners.  research shows that participants are more aggressive against someone they beat (losers) than against someone who beat them (winners). is reciprocity unique to humans? more simply, do animals understand the concept of ‘fairness’? a study of monkeys provides a fascinating answer. this study attracted international media attention, with the implication being that monkeys understand fairness and object to unfairness. researchers who study fairness distinguish between two kinds of unfairness, namely: 1. being under-benefited (getting less than you deserve) 2. being over-benefited (getting more than you deserve). monkeys and several other animals seem to have an acute sense of when they are under- benefited. however, only humans seem to worry about being over-benefited. a full-blown sense of fairness, one that includes both aspects, is found only among humans. for people to be truly fair, they must object to being over-benefited as well as to being under-benefited (even if the latter is stronger).  people (unlike other animals) do feel guilty when they are over-benefited.  in lab studies, people feel guilty if they receive a larger reward than others for performing the same amount or same quality of work.  getting less than your fair share provokes anger and resentment, but getting more than your fair share produces guilt.  people who harm others (perhaps without meaning to do so) prefer to do something nice for the person they harm, and they prefer the nice act to exactly match the harm they did, so that fairness and equity are restored.  they act as if the harm they did creates a debt to that person, and they desire to “pay it back” so as to get the relationship back on an even, fair footing. are human children born with an understanding of reciprocity and fairness?  babies cannot understand such things, but children seem to develop it rather early.  however, some important differences have emerged from research.  it appears that children between the ages of 4 and 8 get the idea of paying back someone who has done something mean to them.  paying back positive things comes more slowly.  younger children notice when someone does something good for them, and it makes them more likely to do something nice themselves – but not necessarily for the same person who was nice to them. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY  8  that is, researchers distinguished between direct reciprocity (paying back the same person) and generalised reciprocity (performing a similar act toward just anyone).  with aggressive or antisocial acts, direct reciprocity appears early in child development: being the target of unkind actions makes children do unkind things, but only toward the same person who was unkind to them.  being the target of prosocial actions makes them do prosocial things but aimed at anyone.  it is only later in child development that children understand the value of returning a favour specifically to the person who benefited them.  it seems children start off with something like a mindset to “pay it forward” when it comes to prosocial action.  quite possibly, receiving a good deed simply prompts them to do a good deed, regardless of who is involved.  but with antisocial and aggressive actions, “pay it back” is what comes first and naturally to small children. 9.3 morality  one way to think of behaviour is that it includes actions that are morally good.  understanding morality is one key to understanding prosocial behaviour.  we have said that people seem to be born to reciprocate and to be fair.  that suggests that they are born with a readiness to learn moral rules and act on them.  all known human societies have morals, which are a set of rules about what actions are right versus wrong.  moral rules tell people what they should do.  in general, moral rules encourage people to do what is best for the social group, which often requires restraining their own selfish and other antisocial impulses.  in the long run everyone is better off when people cooperate – but people are often tempted to be selfish instead, and so it is necessary to encourage people to cooperate, such as by having and enforcing rules.  moral issues arise frequently in everyday life.  when researchers contacted people at randomly chosen moments during the day, one out of every three or four responses indicated that the person had experienced a moral or immoral action (by self or others, including just witnessing) within the past hour.  having people do immoral things to you reduces your happiness significantly – and the opposite: happiness goes up when people do morally good things to you.  performing morally good actions is thus a way that people make each other feel better.  it also increases one’s sense of purpose.  one might assume that performing immoral actions would be a strong cause of unhappiness, not least because people would feel guilty and regretful.  while it is true that performing immoral actions does tend to reduce levels of happiness, the effect is not strong or consistent. Jenna Minnaar SLK 220 CHAPTER 9 FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY