Social Psychology PDF

social psychology Created @November 28, 2024 4:58 PM Class Psychology 01 13 Introduction to Social Psychology.pdf 14 Social Perception and Social Cognition.pdf 15 The Self.pdf 16 Socia Course Social Motives.pdf 18 Attr...

social psychology Created @November 28, 2024 4:58 PM Class Psychology 01 13 Introduction to Social Psychology.pdf 14 Social Perception and Social Cognition.pdf 15 The Self.pdf 16 Socia Course Social Motives.pdf 18 Attraction and Materials Relationships.pdf Prosociality_All.pdf Aggression_All.pdf Attitudes_All(1).pdf SocialInfluence_All(1).pdf Intergrou social psychology 1 social psychology 2 social psychology 3 social psychology 4 social psychology 5 social psychology 6 social psychology 7 social psychology 8 social psychology 9  Sociometer theory is a theory of self-esteem that suggests that self-esteem is a measure of how well we are accepted and valued by others Lecture 20 FAQ: "Prosociality and Prosocial Behavior" Q: What is prosocial behavior, and how is it defined? Prosocial behavior refers to voluntary actions intended to benefit others.1 These actions can manifest in various forms, such as giving, sharing, cooperating, comforting, and consoling.1 It's important to note that prosocial behavior can be motivated by a range of factors, including self-interest, as the actor may also benefit from their actions. A key aspect of the definition is the intention to benefit others, although whether the actions successfully promote welfare is a subject of ongoing discussion.1 Q: What is the difference between prosocial behavior, altruism, and helping? While these terms are often used interchangeably, the sources make some distinctions: Altruism: Considered a specific type of prosocial behavior characterized by the motive of promoting others' welfare without conscious regard for personal benefit, even if such benefits occur incidentally.Altruistic acts typically involve a personal cost to the actor (e.g., time, money, energy).2 Helping: Can be a form of prosocial behavior, but it can also be antisocial depending on the helper's intention.For example, overhelping, where assistance is given to make others appear incompetent, is considered antisocial. Q: How does prosocial behavior develop across the lifespan? Children tend to exhibit prosocial behaviors early in life, primarily driven by sympathy (non-strategic prosociality). Around age 5, motives become more strategic, encompassing selfish (e.g., receiving praise), mutualistic (e.g., eliciting reciprocity), and altruistic (e.g., benefiting others) motivations.4 Q: What are the scientific challenges in studying prosocial behavior? The sources highlight two main challenges: social psychology 10  Controlled Conditions vs. Social Desirability/Demand Characteristics: Studying prosociality in controlled settings (e.g., a laboratory) can inadvertently create social desirability effects (participants acting in ways they perceive as most approved) and demand characteristics (participants acting according to perceived expectations), which can confound results. Prosociality as a Uniform Construct: Treating prosociality as a single, uniform concept overlooks the diverse range of prosocial behaviors and the different factors influencing them. For example, factors affecting charitable donations may not be the same as those driving helping a friend.Similarly, responses to different target groups (e.g., men vs. women) might vary. Q: What factors influence when and why prosocial behavior occurs (or doesn't)? The sources present a biosocial perspective, acknowledging that while humans may have a genetic predisposition towards prosociality, environmental factors (nurture) play a significant role in how and when it manifests.They discuss several influencing factors: Cultural Factors: Cultural norms transmitted through learning and observation shape what is considered acceptable prosocial behavior, how often it's displayed, and towards whom (ingroup vs. outgroup). Cross-cultural studies, such as Levine et al.'s (2001) research on helping behaviors across different cities, demonstrate cultural variations in prosociality. Socio-Categorical Factors (Gender): Traditional views suggest gender influences the type of prosocial behavior rather than the overall willingness or frequency. For example, men might be more likely to help in dangerous situations, while women might engage more in nurturing help.11 However, the universality of these differences and their applicability to non- cisgender individuals are still under investigation. Individual Factors (Personality): While the idea of a "prosocial personality" is debated, personality traits can influence prosocial behavior, particularly when the costs of helping are high, and situational pressures are low. Relevant traits include Machiavellianism (negatively related to prosociality), empathy (positively related), and agreeableness (positively related). Situational Factors: The sources list various situational influences on helping behavior, including the presence of prosocial models, time pressure, mood, empathy, social attributions, environment (rural vs. urban), and social norms (reciprocity, social responsibility). Social Exchange Theory: This theory posits that much prosocial behavior is based on an exchange of rewards and costs (both external and internal) between people. People are more inclined to act prosocially when the perceived rewards outweigh the costs (with exceptions like true altruism.)817 This theory helps explain individual differences in prosocial actions, such as blood donation, as people's evaluation of costs and benefits can vary. Q: What can be done to increase prosocial behavior? The sources suggest that rather than lacking prosocial ideals, people often face barriers to acting on them. Strategies to increase prosocial behavior include: reducing ambiguity about whether help is needed, increasing feelings of responsibility, reminding people of their altruistic values, providing clear opportunities for effective help, modeling prosocial behavior, praising prosocial acts, and teaching inclusivity. The sources also discuss the bystander effect, which occurs when multiple people fail to help a stranger in an emergency. This is often due to diffusion of responsibility (feeling less responsible when others are present) and pluralistic ignorance (misinterpreting others' inaction as a sign that help is not needed.)Interventions aimed at counteracting these effects are also suggested. What are the different types of aggression? ○ A: The PowerPoint outlines three main types of aggression: social psychology 11  Instrumental Aggression: This type of aggression is planned and goal-oriented, used as a means to achieve a specific objective. For instance, a robber might use aggression to intimidate a victim into handing over money. Hostile Aggression: This form of aggression is impulsive and driven by anger or frustration. It is often reactive, occurring in response to a perceived provocation or threat. A common example is a bar fight that erupts from a heated argument. Displaced Aggression: This type of aggression occurs when an individual, frustrated or angry from a previous encounter, redirects that aggression towards an innocent and easily accessible target. This target, often someone non-threatening, was not the original source of the frustration. An example might be someone yelling at their family members after a stressful day at work, even though the family had nothing to do with the work stress What are microaggressions, and how do they relate to the traditional definition of aggression? ○ A: The concept of microaggressions, originally introduced by Chester Pierce, refers to subtle but pervasive forms of discrimination. The PowerPoint expands upon the original definition to include: Brief and Commonplace: Microaggressions are characterized as everyday occurrences, often brief and seemingly insignificant in isolation.8 Communication of Hostility: These acts, whether intentional or unintentional, communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward individuals belonging to marginalized groups. This might include subtle put-downs, dismissive language, or actions that reinforce stereotypes.8 Examples: The PowerPoint offers examples of gender microaggressions in academic settings. These include questioning women's competence more than men's or interrupting women more frequently in meetings or classrooms. he Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) seeks to explain the relationship between cognition (beliefs) and behavior. The TPB posits that a person's intention to act in a particular way is determined by three types of beliefs: ○ Behavioral Beliefs: Beliefs about the outcome of a behavior. For example, "smoking will make me sick." ○ Normative Beliefs: Beliefs about what others expect. For example, "my peers expect me to smoke."5 ○ Control Beliefs: Beliefs about factors that can facilitate or hinder the behavior. For example, "I have easy access to cigarettes." The TPB has been successfully used to predict behaviors such as reckless driving, dieting, and condom use. However, it has been criticized for not acknowledging the role of emotions, failing to address the issue of "inclined abstainers" (people who form an intention but do not act on it), and being less predictive of behavior when the behavior is measured objectively rather than through self-report. What are some psychological functions of attitudes? Knowledge Function: Attitudes help us understand the world and provide structure.8 social psychology 12  Instrumental Function: Attitudes help us maximize positive outcomes and avoid negative ones by highlighting "good" and "bad" entities. Value-Expressive Function: Attitudes allow us to express and reinforce our self-identity.8 Ego-Defensive Function: Attitudes can act as a defense mechanism to protect our self-esteem or justify actions that make us feel guilty. Why are attitudes resistant to change? Attitudes shape how we interpret the world and act as a lens through which we view ourselves and others.9 Because the content of our attitudes is shaped by our cultures and communities, they tend to defend themselves and are often difficult to change. Can attitudes be changed? Yes, although attitudes are generally resistant to change, there are circumstances in which they can be modified. One such phenomenon that can facilitate change is cognitive dissonance. Cognitive Dissonance Theory posits that when a person realizes that their affect, behavior, and/or cognition are inconsistent, this creates an unpleasant state that they are motivated to alleviate. They can do so by changing one of the components to restore consistency. What is an example of a technique that uses cognitive dissonance to change behavior? The Foot-In-The-Door Technique involves first asking a person to agree to a small request and then, later, asking for a larger request. Because people like to appear consistent, they are more likely to agree to the larger request after having agreed to the smaller one. Is cognitive dissonance a universal phenomenon? There is growing evidence of cultural variation in the experience and alleviation of cognitive dissonance. Therefore, it is unclear: ○ who experiences cognitive dissonance as unpleasant and under what conditions. ○ who makes efforts to alleviate cognitive dissonance and under what conditions. What is persuasion? Persuasion is a change in an attitude, or one of its components, that occurs due to communication from another person. What are some important elements of persuasion? Credibility of the Source: Is the communicator perceived as trustworthy and/or competent?15 Content of Communication: Are the arguments weak or strong? Is the message rational or emotional? social psychology 13  Delivery of Communication: What is the method of communication? Is it personal or mediated?15 Target Audience: What are the characteristics of the audience, such as their age and self-esteem?15 Can attitude change occur without our awareness? Yes, attitude change can occur without our awareness or approval. Examples include: ○ Sleeper effect: Even information from non-credible sources can influence our attitudes over time if we forget the source but remember the information. ○ Mere-exposure effect: We tend to develop more positive attitudes towards things we are repeatedly exposed to. What are stereotypes? Stereotypes are beliefs about individuals based on their group membership.These beliefs are often oversimplifications and can lead to prejudice and discrimination. What are prejudice and discrimination? Prejudice involves feelings towards individuals based on their group membership. Discrimination involves actions towards individuals based on their group membership. What is an example of a stereotype? A common gender stereotype is that women are less competent in STEM fields than men. Can members of a stereotyped group also hold prejudiced attitudes? Yes, stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination can become so ingrained in a culture that even those affected by them can act on them.For example, women can be sexist, and Black people can hold anti-Black prejudice. What are some consequences of prejudice and discrimination? Stigmatization: When negative attitudes are widely shared, they can lead to the stigmatization of entire groups of people. Blatant Discrimination: Stigmatized individuals face differential treatment in various settings, such as schools, workplaces, and courtrooms. Subtle Discrimination: Stigmatized individuals may receive less help and support and may be subject to tokenism. Biased Impression Formation: Stereotypes can influence how we seek out, interpret, and remember information about members of stereotyped groups, which can lead to the self-perpetuation of stereotypes. Stereotype Threat: Stigmatized individuals are often burdened by worrying about the views of others. Can prejudice and discrimination be overcome? social psychology 14  Psychologists are currently investigating various strategies to reduce prejudice and discrimination. Two common strategies are: ○ Interrupting Cultural Transfer: This approach aims to change stereotypic beliefs about social groups. ○ Facilitating Contact: By promoting positive contact between members of different groups, this approach aims to encourage individuation rather than categorization.26 How can intergroup contact reduce prejudice? The Contact Hypothesis suggests that contact between members of different groups, under certain optimal conditions, can reduce prejudice.These optimal conditions include equal status between groups, cooperation towards common goals, and formal support for the contact. Is contact always effective in reducing prejudice? No, contact can sometimes have a negative impact on intergroup attitudes, particularly when the contact is experienced negatively or when optimal conditions are not met. Social influence can result in conformity, which is a change in one's behavior to accord with others and/or social norms.25 This conformity can be the result of either acceptance or compliance.5 ○ Acceptance involves both acting and believing in accord with others, for example, changing one's attitude after feeling persuaded by others. A person who joins in a standing ovation because they genuinely believe the performance was outstanding is displaying acceptance.5 ○ Compliance involves publicly acting in accord with others even while privately disagreeing. For example, a person who joins in a standing ovation even though they thought the performance was mediocre is displaying compliance. How has normative influence been studied? Solomon Asch used a line judgment task to study normative influence in 1951, 1955, and 1956.9 In his studies, participants were asked to judge which of three comparison lines was the same length as a standard line. When participants made their judgments alone, they were correct more than 99% of the time.9 However, in the experimental condition, participants made their judgments in groups of seven, where six of the "participants" were actually confederates of the researchers. The confederates all gave the same wrong answer on 12 of the 36 trials.9 The researchers found that overall, 37% of the real participants conformed with the confederates and gave the wrong answer. Moreover, 76% of the participants conformed at least once.8 These findings suggest that people are willing to conform to group norms even when they know that the group is wrong. What is the door-in-the-face technique? The door-in-the-face technique is a persuasion technique that uses the norm of reciprocity to influence a person's behavior. It involves first making a large request that is likely to be refused. Once the request is refused, the persuader makes a smaller, more reasonable request. The person is more likely to agree to the smaller request because they feel like the persuader has made a concession.20 Cialdini and colleagues demonstrated this technique in a 1975 study, where they asked people to work for two years for two hours a week in a youth detention center.20 Unsurprisingly, this request was widely rejected. The researchers then asked if people would be willing to supervise a group of adolescents for one field trip social psychology 15  to the zoo.20 Those who had been presented with the initial, more demanding, request were more likely to agree to chaperone the field trip. What is intergroup behavior? Intergroup behavior is any perception, cognition, affect, or behavior that is influenced by people's recognition that they and others are members of distinct social groups.1 Why do humans form and maintain groups? The sources propose several theories: Social Identity Theory (SIT): This theory, introduced by Henri Tajfel in 1978, posits that humans derive their self-esteem and self-concept, including their attitudes, from belonging to social groups.23 According to SIT, people are driven to maintain a positive self-concept, which they achieve in part by enhancing the status of their in-groups through social comparison and strategic social actions.4 For example, people may join groups that have a high social status, work to enhance their groups' social status, or interpret their group memberships in a positive light.5 Self-Categorization Theory (SCT): This theory, proposed by John Turner and his colleagues in 1987, builds upon SIT.2 It argues that individuals develop a hierarchy of identities based on belonging to different groups, with each group offering different levels of inclusion. For example, a person might identify as British, a scientist, a parent, and a Liverpool supporter.2 Need to Belong Theory: Roy Baumeister and Mark Leary argued in 1995 that humans have a universal and innate need to form and maintain stable relationships with others.26 This need to belong is thought to be a fundamental human motivation that drives people to seek out and affiliate with groups.7 What are the psychological effects of group membership? Group membership can have significant effects on individuals' behavior: Effects on Individual Behavior ○ Social Facilitation and Inhibition: The presence of other group members can improve individual performance on simple or well-learned tasks (social facilitation), but can impair performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks (social inhibition).8 Factors like individual skill level, concern about being judged, and awareness of others' attention can all influence whether the presence of others leads to facilitation or inhibition.9 ○ Social Loafing: Individuals may exert less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.10 This phenomenon, called social loafing, may happen unconsciously, rather than as a deliberate attempt to exploit others' effort.10 Studies suggest that social loafing is less prevalent among women and in groups with high entitativity.1 Effects on Interpersonal Behavior ○ Ingroup Favoritism and Outgroup Derogation: Individuals tend to feel and act more positively towards members of their own group (ingroup favoritism) and more negatively towards members of other groups (outgroup derogation).1 This tendency can arise even when group membership is based on arbitrary or trivial criteria.11 ○ social psychology 16  The Minimal Group Paradigm: Developed to understand the minimal conditions under which people discriminate between ingroups and outgroups, this paradigm involves assigning participants to groups based on random or meaningless criteria.11 Despite the lack of meaningful group differences, participants consistently show ingroup favoritism by allocating more resources to and making more positive judgments about their own group members.12 How do groups differ? Group Culture: Groups, even those within the same larger society, can develop distinct cultures that influence their members' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.13 Cultural Variation: Different cultures have diverse perspectives on the nature of groups and the role of the individual within groups.14 Social psychologists have increasingly recognized the importance of considering cultural differences when studying intergroup behavior. Acculturation: When individuals join new cultures, they can adopt different acculturation strategies.14 These include integration (maintaining one's original culture while adopting aspects of the new culture), assimilation (abandoning one's original culture and fully adopting the new culture), separation (maintaining one's original culture and rejecting the new culture), and marginalization (rejecting both one's original culture and the new culture).14 Culture-Conscious Psychology: Most psychological research has been conducted in Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic (WEIRD) societies, which are not representative of the world's cultures.14 Culture-conscious psychology seeks to address this limitation by examining psychological phenomena across diverse cultures.15 Approaches to Cross-Cultural Research: Psychologists use various approaches to study cultural differences. For example, they may compare people from different cultures by asking them about their values and beliefs (polling), or by comparing their performance on psychological tasks (testing).16 Analytic vs. Holistic Cognition: Some research suggests that Westerners tend to rely more on analytic cognition (focusing on individual objects and their attributes, and using rules and logic), while Easterners tend to rely more on holistic cognition (focusing on relationships between objects and attending to the broader context).1718 This distinction has been proposed to explain differences in how people from different cultures perceive and think about the world. What are some common criticisms of cross-cultural psychology? Oversimplification: Cross-cultural research can sometimes oversimplify cultural differences, leading to misleading stereotypes. Lack of Contextualization: Research findings are often not adequately contextualized within the historical, political, and social factors that shape cultural differences. Ethnocentrism: Researchers may bring their own cultural biases to their work, potentially leading to interpretations that favor their own culture. What are the psychological origins of prejudice? Personality-based Preparedness: Some individuals may be more predisposed to prejudiced attitudes due to their personality traits. For example, people with an authoritarian personality, characterized by a strong belief in authority, obedience, and conformity, may be more likely to hold prejudiced views.11 social psychology 17  Cognitive Biases: The human mind relies on various cognitive shortcuts (heuristics) to process information efficiently. However, these heuristics can lead to biases in perception and judgment, making people prone to stereotyping and prejudice. Some key cognitive biases include:12 ○ Accentuation Bias: This bias leads people to perceive greater similarities within groups (within-group assimilation) and greater differences between groups (between-group contrast) than actually exist. This can reinforce stereotypes and prejudice.13 ○ Correspondence Bias: This bias refers to the tendency to attribute people's behavior to their internal dispositions, even when situational factors play a significant role. This can lead to the formation of negative stereotypes when individuals from a particular group are observed behaving in ways that are consistent with those stereotypes.13 ○ Illusory Correlations: This bias involves perceiving a relationship between two variables, such as group membership and a particular trait, even when no such relationship exists. This often happens when two infrequent events co-occur, leading people to overestimate the strength of the association between them. This bias can contribute to the formation and maintenance of stereotypes about minority groups.13 Motivational Biases: Prejudice can also serve various psychological needs and motivations:14 ○ Need for Distinctiveness: People may use prejudice to boost their self-esteem and create a sense of belonging by favoring their in-group and denigrating out-groups. This allows them to feel connected to a valued group while simultaneously differentiating themselves from others.14 ○ Need to Belong: People are inherently motivated to belong to social groups. This need can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice as individuals strive to maintain their group membership and avoid social exclusion.15 ○ Need for Self-Enhancement: People are generally motivated to see themselves in a positive light. This can lead to a bias in favor of one's own group, ascribing positive qualities to in-groups and negative qualities to out-groups, thereby boosting self-esteem.15 Cultural Transfer: Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are often learned through socialization processes, passed down from generation to generation through communication, observation, and imitation. Families, peers, media, and other cultural institutions play a significant role in shaping individuals' prejudiced attitudes.16 What are the consequences of prejudice? Consequences for Targets: Prejudice and discrimination can have devastating consequences for individuals who are targeted:17 ○ Blatant Discrimination: They may face overt discrimination, such as being denied opportunities, harassed, or even subjected to violence based on their group membership. They may also experience dehumanisation, being stripped of their individuality and treated as less than human.1718 ○ Subtle Discrimination: They may also experience more subtle forms of discrimination, such as microaggressions, which are brief and commonplace indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative attitudes toward members of marginalised groups.They may encounter tokenism, where small concessions are social psychology 18  made to members of their group to deflect accusations of prejudice while maintaining the status quo. They may also be subjected to biased impression formation, where stereotypes influence how information about them is perceived, interpreted, and remembered, often leading to self-fulfilling prophecies. ○ Stereotype Threat: They may experience stereotype threat, which refers to the fear of confirming negative stereotypes about their group. This fear can lead to anxiety, reduced performance, and disengagement from domains where they are stereotyped. Consequences for Perpetrators: Holding prejudiced attitudes can also have psychological and social consequences for those who perpetuate them: ○ Cognitive Economy: Stereotypes can simplify social perception, allowing people to quickly categorize individuals and make judgments without expending much cognitive effort. ○ Uncertainty Reduction: Stereotypes can create a sense of predictability and control in social interactions, reducing feelings of anxiety and uncertainty. ○ Self-Esteem Regulation: Prejudice can serve as a defense mechanism to protect self-esteem, allowing individuals to feel superior to members of out-groups. ○ System Justification: Prejudice can be used to justify existing social hierarchies and inequalities, making people more accepting of the status quo. Consequences for Societies: Prejudice and discrimination undermine social cohesion and create conflict and division within societies. They perpetuate inequality and limit opportunities for members of marginalized groups. Can prejudice be changed? Yes, prejudice can be changed, but it requires sustained effort and multifaceted interventions: Interrupting Cultural Transfer: Efforts to reduce prejudice must address the transmission of stereotypes and biases through socialization processes. This involves promoting positive intergroup contact, challenging negative media portrayals, and fostering inclusive attitudes within families, schools, and communities. Facilitating Intergroup Contact: The contact hypothesis suggests that positive intergroup contact can reduce prejudice under certain conditions: ○ Equal Status Contact: Interactions should occur between individuals of equal status within the contact setting. ○ Cooperative Interaction: Individuals should work together toward common goals, fostering interdependence and shared responsibility. ○ Common Goals: The pursuit of shared objectives can create a sense of unity and reduce intergroup competition. ○ Institutional Support: Intergroup contact should be supported by formal structures, such as laws, policies, and social norms that promote equality and discourage discrimination. social psychology 19  Addressing Cognitive and Motivational Biases: Interventions can target the cognitive and motivational biases that contribute to prejudice. This involves raising awareness of these biases, challenging stereotypic beliefs, and promoting empathy and perspective-taking.25 How can individuals contribute to reducing prejudice? Self-Awareness: Become aware of your own biases and prejudices, acknowledging that everyone holds implicit biases to some extent. Challenge Stereotypes: When you encounter stereotypes, actively challenge them by seeking out information that contradicts them and highlighting individual variations within groups. Promote Intergroup Contact: Engage in meaningful interactions with people from different backgrounds, fostering friendships and understanding across group boundaries. Advocate for Equality: Support policies and initiatives that promote equality and challenge discrimination. Be an Ally: Stand up against prejudice and discrimination when you witness it, even if it's uncomfortable. social psychology 20