Introduction To Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY BPSY 50 – Introduction to Psychology | BS- Psychology 1-1 | Dr. Paulito Hilario | Qualifying Exam Reviewer 1. INTRODUCTION TO 3. Much human behavior is caused by factors that are...

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY BPSY 50 – Introduction to Psychology | BS- Psychology 1-1 | Dr. Paulito Hilario | Qualifying Exam Reviewer 1. INTRODUCTION TO 3. Much human behavior is caused by factors that are outside our conscious awareness, making it PSYCHOLOGY impossible for us, as individuals, to really understand them. PSYCHOLOGY - Scientific study of mind and behavior APPROACHES OF PSYCHOLOGY - “Psyche” - life - “Logos” - explanation STRUCTURALISM - Proponents: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGISTS - Uses the method of introspection to identify the - Use scientific methods to create new knowledge basic elements or “structures” of psychological about the new causes of behavior experience PSYCHOLOGIST-PRACTITIONERS FUNCTIONALISM - Use existing research to enhance the everyday life - Proponent: William James of others - Attempts to understand why animals and humans have developed the particular psychological WHY SCIENTISTS RELY ON SCIENTIFIC METHOD aspects that they currently possess PSYCHODYNAMIC EMPIRICAL METHODS - Proponents: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, - includes the process of collecting and organizing Erik Erickson data and drawing conclusions about those data. - Focuses on the role of our unconscious thoughts, This provides a basis for collecting, analyzing, and feelings, and memories and our early childhood interpreting data within a common framework in experiences in determining behavior which information is shared. BEHAVIORISM SCIENTIFIC METHOD - Proponents: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner - Set of assumptions, rules, and procedures that - Based on the premise that it is not possible to scientists use to conduct empirical research. objectively study the mind, and therefore that FACTS psychologists should limit their attention to the - Objective statements determined to be accurate study of behavior itself through empirical studies. COGNITIVE - Proponents: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic LEVELS OF EXPLANATION IN PSYCHOLOGY Bartlett, Jean Piaget - The study of mental processes, including LOWER LEVELS OF EXPLANATION perception, thinking, memory, and judgments - Tied to biological influences such as genes, SOCIO-CULTURAL neurons, neurotransmitters, and hormones - Proponents: Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley MIDDLE LEVELS OF EXPLANATION Schachter - Refer to the abilities and characteristics of - The study of how the social situations and the individual people cultures in which people find themselves influence HIGHEST LEVELS OF EXPLANATION thinking and behavior - Relate to social groups, organizations, and cultures EARLY PSYCHOLOGISTS CHALLENGES OF STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY PLATO (428-347 BC) and ARISTOTLE (384-322 BC) - The major goal of psychology is to predict behavior - They questioned the distinction between nature by understanding its causes. and nurture and the existence of free will. - Individual differences are the variations among - Plato argued n the nature side, believing that people on physical or psychological dimensions. certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn - Predictions made by psychologists are only - Aristotle was more on the nurture side, he believed probabilistic. that each child is born as an “empty slate” (in Latin 1. Almost all behavior is multiply determined or a tabula rasa) and that knowledge is primarily produced by many factors. And these factors occur acquired through learning and experience. at different levels of explanation. 2. These multiple causes are not independent of one another; they are associated such that when one cause is present other causes tend to be present as well. This overlap makes it difficult to pinpoint which cause or causes are operating. RENE DESCARTES (1596-1650) than do other members of the species who do not - also considered the issue of free will, arguing in its have the characteristic. favor and believing that the mind controls the body through the pineal gland in the brain PSYCHODYNAMIC PSYCHOLOGY - also believed in the existence of innate natural abilities - approach to understanding human behavior that - He also addressed the relationship between mind focuses on the role of unconscious thoughts, (the mental aspects of life) and body (the physical feelings, and memories. aspects of life). Descartes believed in the principle - (see TOP notes for more info.) of dualism: that the mind is fundamentally different from the mechanical body. BEHAVIORISM - a school (approach) of psychology that is based on STRUCTURALISM the premise that it is not possible to objectively - a school (approach) of psychology whose goal was study the mind, and therefore that psychologists to identify the basic elements or “structures” of should limit their attention to the study of behavior psychological experience. itself. - Behaviorists believe that the human mind is a INTROSPECTION “black box” into which stimuli are sent and from - involves asking research participants to describe which responses are received. exactly what they experience as they work on - Watson was influenced by Pavlov’s conditioning mental tasks, such as viewing colors, reading a (dogs would salivate at the sound of a tone that page in a book, or performing a math problem. had previously been associated with the - An important aspect of the structuralist approach presentation of food). Watson and the other was that it was rigorous and scientific. behaviorists began to use these ideas to explain - Structuralists were the first to realize the how events that people and other organisms importance of unconscious processes—that many experienced in their environment (stimuli) could important aspects of human psychology occur produce specific behaviors (responses). outside our conscious awareness, and that psychologists cannot expect research participants COGNITIVE to be able to accurately report on all of their experiences. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY - a field of psychology that studies mental processes, including perception, thinking, memory, and FUNCTIONALISM judgment. - to understand why animals and humans have - Hermann Ebbinghaus studies the ability of people developed the particular psychological aspects to remember lists of words under different that they currently possess conditions - Sir Frederic Bartlett studied the cognitive and social THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION processes of remembering. - Proposed that the physical characteristics of NEUROIMAGING animals and humans evolved because they were - The use of various techniques to provide pictures of useful, or functional. the structure and function of the living brain. These - Some animals have developed strong muscles to images are used to diagnose brain disease and allow them to run fast, the human brain, so injury, but they also allow researchers to view functionalists thought, must have adapted to serve information processing as it occurs in the brain, a particular function in human experience. because the processing causes the involved area of the brain to increase metabolism and show up on the scan. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY - A branch of psychology that applies the Darwinian SOCIO-CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY theory of natural selection to human and animal behavior. - is the study of how the social situations and the - Accepts the functionalists’ basic assumption, cultures in which people find themselves influence namely that many human psychological systems, thinking and behavior. including memory, emotion, and personality, serve - Socio-cultural psychologists are concerned with key adaptive functions. how people perceive themselves and others, and - Fitness is the key component of ideas of how people influence each other’s behavior evolutionary theory. It refers to the extent to which having a given characteristic helps the individual organism survive and reproduce at a higher rate SOCIAL NORMS - Important aspect of socio-cultural psychology THEORY - This are the ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving - an integrated set of principles that explains and that are shared by group members and perceived predicts many, but not all, observed relationships by them as appropriate within a given domain of inquiry. - Many of the most important social norms are determined by the culture in which we live, and Characteristics of a good theory: these cultures are studied by cross-cultural 1. General psychologists - Summarize different outcomes INDIVIDUALISM 2. Parsimonious - valuing the self and one’s independence from - provide the simplest possible account of others. those outcomes COLLECTIVISM 3. Provide ideas for future research - oriented toward interdependence 4. Falsifiable - the variables of interest can be adequately measured and the 2. PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE relationships between the variables that are predicted by the theory can be shown PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH through research to be incorrect - used in a range of important areas, from public policy to driver safety. It guides court rulings with RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS respect to racism and sexism as well as court procedure, in the use of lie detectors during - Is a specific and falsifiable prediction about the criminal trials. relationship between or among two or more - helps us understand how driver behavior affects variables safety, helps us understand how driver behavior VARIABLE affects safety, how to best detect deception, and - Is any attribute that can assume different values the causes of terrorism. among different people or across different times or places CONCEPTUAL VARIABLES BASIC RESEARCH - abstract ideas that form the basis of research - Research that answers fundamental questions hypotheses. about behavior. MEASURED VARIABLES - variables consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables. APPLIED RESEARCH OPERATIONAL DEFINITION - research that investigates issues that have - Refer to a precise statement of how a conceptual implications for everyday life and provides solutions variable is turned into a measured variable to everyday problems. - the most effective methods for reducing RESEARCH DESIGNS depression, the types of advertising campaigns that serve to reduce drug and alcohol abuse, the - the specific method a researcher uses to collect, key predictors of managerial success in business, analyze, and interpret data. and the indicators of effective government programs, such as Head Start. SCIENTIFIC METHOD - the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research. - It must be objective or free from the personal bias or emotions of the scientist. DESCRIPTIVE - proscribes how scientists collect and analyze data, - research designed to provide a snapshot of the how they draw conclusions from data, and how current state of affairs. they share data with others. CASE STUDIES LAWS - descriptive records of one or more individual’s - Principles that are so general as to apply to all experiences and behavior. situations in a given domain of inquiry SURVEYS - But because laws are very general principles and - a measure administered through either an their validity has already been well established, interview or a written questionnaire to get a picture they are themselves rarely directly subjected to of the beliefs or behaviors of a sample of people of scientific tests. interest. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION because the statistical tests were incorrectly - research based on the observation of everyday interpreted. events. DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY - numbers that summarize the distribution of scores - the extent to which we can be certain that the on a measured variable. researcher has drawn accurate conclusions about the statistical significance of the research CORRELATIONAL - Research designed to discover relationships INTERNAL VALIDITY among variables and to allow the prediction of - the extent to which we can trust the conclusions future events from present knowledge. that have been drawn about the causal - When there are two variables in the research relationship between the independent and design, one of them is called the predictor variable dependent variables and the other the outcome variable. - Although it is claimed that the independent variable caused the dependent variable, the PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT dependent variable actually may have been - most common statistical measure of the strength caused by a confounding variable. of linear relationships among variables CONFOUNDING VARIABLES MULTIPLE REGRESSION - Internal validity is maximized when research is free - a statistical technique, based on correlation from the presence of confounding variables– coefficients among variables, that allows predicting variables other than the independent variable on a single outcome variable from more than one which the participants in one experimental predictor variable condition differ systematically from those in other conditions. EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTER BIAS - a situation in which the experimenter subtly treats - Assess the causal impact of one or more the research participants in the various experimental manipulations on a dependent experimental conditions differently, resulting in an variable invalid confirmation of the research hypothesis. - Its goal is to provide more definitive conclusions - To avoid this, researchers run experiments where about the causal relationships among the variables researchers are blind to conditions. Meaning, they in the research hypothesis than is available from know the research hypothesis but they do not know correlational designs. which conditions the participants are assigned to. DOUBLE-BLIND EXPERIMENT INDEPENDENT VARIABLE - Both the researcher and the research participants - the causing variable that is created (manipulated) are blind to conditions. by the experimenter. DEPENDENT VARIABLE - a measured variable that is expected to be EXTERNAL VALIDITY influenced by the experimental manipulation. - The extent to which the results of a research design can be generalized beyond the specific way the THREATS TO VALIDITY OF RESEARCH original experiment was conducted. - Although it is claimed that the results are more general, the observed effects may actually only be CONSTRUCT VALIDITY found under limited conditions or for specific - the extent to which the variables used in the groups of people. research adequately assess the conceptual GENERALIZATION variables they were designed to measure - the extent to which relationships among - Although it is claimed that the measured variables conceptual variables can be demonstrated in a measure the conceptual variables of interest, they wide variety of people and a wide variety of actually may not. manipulated or measured variables RELIABILITY REPLICATION - One requirement for construct validity - The process of repeating previous research, which - the consistency of a measured variable. forms the basis of all scientific inquiry META-ANALYSIS STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE - a statistical technique that uses the results of - the confidence with which a scientist can conclude existing studies to integrate and draw conclusions that data are not due to chance or random error about those studies - Conclusions regarding the research may be - Used by scientists to summarize replication of incorrect because no statistical tests were made or research findings.  - Provides objective method of reviewing research findings because: ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESS 1. Specifies inclusion criteria that indicate exactly which studies will or will not be included in the - The nervous system operates using analysis, electrochemical processes in which electrical 2. Systematically searches for all studies that meet charge moves through the neuron itself and the inclusion criteria chemicals are used to transmit information 3. Provides an objective measure of the strength of between neurons. Within the neuron, when a signal observed relationships. is received by the dendrites, it is transmitted to the soma in the form of an electrical signal, and, if the signal is strong enough, it may then be passed on to the axon and then to the terminal buttons. 3. BRAINS, BODIES, AND BEHAVIOR NEUROTRANSMITTERS - It is the chemical emitted when signals reach the NERVOUS SYSTEM terminal buttons - A chemical that relays signals across the synapses - Collection of hundreds of billions of specialized and between neurons interconnected cells through which messages are - Travel across the synaptic space between the sent between the brain and the rest of the body. terminal button of one neuron and the dendrites of CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) other neurons, where they bind to the dendrites in - made up of the brain and the spinal cord the neighboring neurons PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) SYNAPSES - the neurons that link the CNS to our skin, muscles, - Communicates with other neurons across the and glands spaces between the cells ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Areas where the terminal buttons at the end of the - Our behavior is influenced in large part by this axon of one neuron nearly, but don’t quite, touch system. It is the chemical regulator of the body that the dendrites of another. consists of glands that secrete hormones. - They allow each axon to communicate with many dendrites in neighboring cells NEURON RESTING POTENTIAL - a cell in the nervous system whose function it is to - a state in which the interior of the neuron contains receive and transmit information a greater number of negatively charged ions than does the area outside the cell ACTION POTENTIAL - change in electrical charge that occurs in a neuron when a nerve impulse is transmitted - Once the action potential occurs, the number of positive ions exceeds the number of negative ions in this segment, and the segment temporarily becomes positively charged. NODE OF RANVIER - breaks between the sausage-like segments of the myelin sheath SOMA (CELL BODY) - contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive DENDRITES - collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma When neurotransmitters are accepted by the receptors on AXON the receiving neurons their effect may be either excitatory - transmits information away from the cell body (i.e., they make the cell more likely to fire) or inhibitory (i.e., toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands. they make the cell less likely to fire). MYELIN SHEATH - a layer of fatty tissue surrounding the axon of a REUPTAKE neuron that both acts as an insulator and allows - a process in which neurotransmitters that are in the faster transmission of the electrical signal. synapse are reabsorbed into the transmitting  terminal buttons, ready to again be released after - A structure in the brainstem that helps control the the neuron fires. movements of the body, playing a particularly important role in balance and walking. AGONIST - a drug that has chemical properties similar to a RETICULAR FORMATION particular neurotransmitter and thus mimics the - Running through the medulla and the pons is a effects of the neurotransmitter. long, narrow network of neurons - When ingested, it binds to the receptor sites in the - Filter out some of the stimuli that are coming into dendrites to excite the neuron, acting as if more of the brain from the spinal cord and to relay the the neurotransmitter had been present remainder of the signals to other areas of the brain ANTAGONIST - Plays important roles in walking, eating, sexual - a drug that reduces or stops the normal effects of a activity, and sleeping neurotransmitter. THALAMUS - When ingested, it binds to the receptor sites in the - Egg-shaped structure above the brainstem that dendrite, thereby blocking the neurotransmitter. applies still more filtering to the sensory information that is coming up from the spinal cord and through - When an antagonist is ingested, it binds to the the reticular formation, and it relays some of these receptor sites in the dendrite, thereby blocking the remaining signals to the higher brain levels neurotransmitter. As an example, the poison curare - Receives some of the higher brain’s replies, is an antagonist for the neurotransmitter forwarding them to the medulla and the acetylcholine. When the poison enters the brain, it cerebellum binds to the dendrites, stops communication - Important in sleep because it shuts off incoming among the neurons, and usually causes death. Still signals from the senses, allowing us to rest. other drugs work by blocking the reuptake of the CEREBELLUM neurotransmitter itself—when reuptake is reduced - Consists of two wrinkled ovals behind the by the drug, more neurotransmitter remains in the brainstem. It functions to coordinate voluntary synapse, increasing its action. movement. - People who have damage to the cerebellum have difficulty walking, keeping their balance, and holding their hands steady - Contributes to emotional responses, helps us discriminate between different sounds and textures, and is important in learning LIMBIC SYSTEM - Located between the brainstem and the two cerebral hemispheres, that governs emotion and memory. It includes the amygdala, the hypothalamus, and the hippocampus. - Largely responsible for memory and emotions, BRAIN including our responses to reward and punishment. AMYGDALA - Consists of two “almond-shaped” clusters (amygdala comes from the Latin word for “almond”) and is primarily responsible for regulating our perceptions of, and reactions to, aggression and fear. - Has connections to other bodily systems related to fear, including the sympathetic nervous system, facial responses, the processing of smells, and the release of neurotransmitters related to stress and aggression - Amygdala also helps us learn from situations that BRAIN STEM create fear. When we experience events that are - the oldest and innermost region of the brain. dangerous, the amygdala stimulates the brain to - It controls the most basic functions of life, including remember the details of the situation so that we breathing, attention, and motor responses learn to avoid it in the future MEDULLA HYPOTHALAMUS - the area of the brainstem that controls heart rate - contains a number of small areas that perform a and breathing variety of functions, including the important role of - Medulla alone is sufficient to maintain lives linking the nervous system to the endocrine system PONS via the pituitary gland.  - Helps regulate body temperature, hunger, thirst, FUNCTIONS OF THE CORTEX and sex, and responds to the satisfaction of these needs by creating feelings of pleasure. MOTOR CORTEX - part of the cortex that controls and executes movements of the body by sending signals to the cerebellum and the spinal cord. HIPPOCAMPUS - specialized for providing control over the body, in - consists of two “horns” that curve back from the the sense that the parts of the body that require amygdala more precise and finer movements - Important in storing information in long-term memory SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX - If the hippocampus is damaged, a person cannot - An area just behind and parallel to the motor cortex build new memories, living instead in a strange at the back of the frontal lobe, receives information world where everything he or she experiences just from the skin’s sensory receptors and the fades away, even while older memories from the movements of different body parts time before the damage are untouched. VISUAL CORTEX - the area located in the occipital lobe (at the very back of the brain) that processes visual CEREBRAL CORTEX information. - the outer bark-like layer of our brain that allows us AUDITORY COMPLEX to so successfully use language, acquire complex - It is located on the lower side of temporal lobe that skills, create tools, and live in social groups. is responsible for hearing and language ASSOCIATION AREAS GLIAL CELLS (GLIA) - The remainder of the cortex in made up of this in - cells that surround and link to the neurons, which sensory and motor information is combined protecting them, providing them with nutrients, and and associated with our stored knowledge absorbing unused neurotransmitters. NEUROPLASTICITY Cerebral cortex is divided into two hemispheres (left and right) and each hemisphere is divided into four lobes - The brain’s ability to change its structure and (frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal). function in response to experience or damage. - Enables us to learn and remember new things and adjust to new experiences. NEUROGENESIS - Although neurons cannot repair or regenerate themselves as skin or blood vessels can, new evidence suggests that the brain can engage in neurogenesis or the forming of new neurons NEUROIMAGING TECHNIQUES FRONTAL LOBE ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY (EEG) - Located behind the forehead which is responsible - A technique that records the electrical activity primarily for thinking, planning, memory, and produced by the brain’s neurons through the use of judgment electrodes that are placed around the research PARIETAL LOBE participant’s head - can show if a person is asleep, awake, or - Extends from the middle to the back of the skull and anesthetized because the brain wave patterns are which is responsible primarily for processing known to differ during each state information about touch OCCIPITAL LOBE FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI) - A type of brain scan that uses a magnetic field to - At the very back of the skull, which processes visual create images of brain activity in each brain area. information - Very clear and detailed pictures of brain structures TEMPORAL LOBE can be produced via fMRI - Front of the occipital lobe that is responsible TRANSCRANIAL MAGNETIC STIMULATION (TMS) primarily for hearing and language. - a procedure in which magnetic pulses are applied to the brain of living persons with the goal of temporarily and safely deactivating a small brain region.  - primary advantage of TMS is that it allows the AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS) researcher to draw causal conclusions about the influence of brain structures on thoughts, feelings, - the division of the PNS that governs the internal and behaviors activities of the human body, including heart rate, breathing, digestion, salivation, perspiration, The nervous system, the electrical information highway of urination, and sexual arousal. the body, is made up of nerves : bundles of interconnected - Subdivided into sympathetic and neurons that fire in synchrony to carry messages. parasympathetic systems. SYMPATHETIC DIVISION OF THE ANS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - involved in preparing the body for behavior, - made up of the brain and spinal cord, is the major particularly in response to stress, by activating the controller of the body’s functions, charged with organs and the glands in the endocrine system interpreting sensory information and responding to PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION OF THE ANS it with its own directives - tends to calm the body by slowing the heart and - interprets information coming in from the senses, breathing and by allowing the body to recover from formulates an appropriate reaction, and sends the activities that the sympathetic system causes responses to the appropriate system to respond accordingly The sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions normally function in opposition to each other, such that the sympathetic division acts a bit like the accelerator pedal on a car and the parasympathetic division acts like the brake. SENSORY NEURON (AFFERENT)- inward - carries information from the sensory receptors MOTOR NEURON (EFFERENT)- outward - transmits information to the muscles and glands INTERNEURON - Most common type of neuron - Located primarily within the CNS and is responsible for communicating among the neurons. - Allow the brain to combine the multiple sources of SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS) available information to create a coherent picture - The division of the PNS that controls the external of the sensory information being conveyed. aspects of the body, including skeletal muscles, SPINAL CORD skin, and sense organs. - the long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves and - consists primarily of motor nerves responsible for supporting cells that extends down from the brain sending brain signals for muscle contraction. - Within the spinal cord, ascending tracts of sensory neurons relay sensory information from the sense HOMEOSTASIS organs to the brain while descending tracts of - the natural balance in the body’s systems motor neurons relay motor commands back to the body REFLEX ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - An involuntary and nearly instantaneous - A primary function of the sympathetic and movement in response to a stimulus parasympathetic nervous systems is to interact - Triggered when sensory information is powerful with the endocrine system to elicit chemicals that enough to reach a given threshold and the provide another system for influencing our feelings interneurons in the spinal cord act to send a and behaviors. message back through the motor neurons without - The endocrine system works together with the relaying the information to the brain nervous system to influence many aspects of human behavior, including growth, reproduction, and metabolism - Plays a vital role in emotion regulation. GLAND - Groups of cells that function to secrete hormones HORMONES 4. SENSING AND PERCEIVING - Chemical that moves throughout the body to help regulate emotions and behaviors. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Sensation and perception work seamlessly together to allow us to experience the world through our eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin, but also to combine what we are currently learning from the environment with what we already know about it to make judgments and to choose appropriate behaviors. SENSATION - awareness resulting from the stimulation of a sense organ PERCEPTION - The organization and interpretation of sensations TRANSDUCTION - the conversion of stimuli detected by receptor cells to electrical impulses that are then transported to PITUITARY GLAND (MASTER GLAND) the brain—in different, but related, ways. - small pea-sized gland located near the center of the brain, is responsible for controlling the body’s growth MEASURING SENSATION - secretes hormones that influence our responses to PSYCHOPHYSICS pain as well as hormones that signal the ovaries - Branch of psychology that studies the effects of and testes to make sex hormones. physical stimuli on sensory perceptions and mental - controls ovulation and the menstrual cycle in states women ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD PANCREAS - the intensity of a stimulus that allows an organism - Secretes hormones designed to keep the body to just barely detect it. supplied with fuel to produce and maintain stores SIGNAL DETECTION ANALYSIS of energy - technique used to determine the ability of the PINEAL GLAND perceiver to separate true signals from background - secretes melatonin, a hormone that helps regulate noise the wake-sleep cycle SENSITIVITY THYROID AND PARATHYROID GLANDS - true ability of the individual to detect the presence - responsible for determining how quickly the body or absence of signals. uses energy and hormones, and controlling the RESPONSE BIAS amount of calcium in the blood and bones. - a behavioral tendency to respond “yes” to the trials, ADRENAL GLANDS which is independent of sensitivity. - produce hormones that regulate salt and water DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD (JUST NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE balance in the body, and they are involved in [JND]) metabolism, the immune system, and sexual - the change in a stimulus that can just barely be development and function detected by the organism. - secrete the hormones epinephrine (also known as WEBER’S LAW adrenaline) and norepinephrine (also known as - Just a noticeable difference of a stimulus is a noradrenaline) when we are excited, threatened, or constant proportion of the original intensity of the stressed stimulus. TESTES - Male sex gland secrete a number of hormones, the most important of which is testosterone, the male SEEING sex hormone - A large part of our cerebral cortex is devoted to OVARIES seeing, and we have substantial visual skills - The female sex glands that produce eggs and - Once this visual information reaches the visual secrete the female hormones estrogen and cortex, it is processed by a variety of neurons that progesterone detect colors, shapes, and motion, and that create meaningful perceptions out of the incoming stimuli. VISION VISUAL ACCOMMODATION - process of detecting the electromagnetic energy - The process of changing the curvature of the lens that surrounds us. Only a small fraction of the to keep the light entering the eye focused on the electromagnetic spectrum is visible to humans. retina - Accommodation is not always perfect, and in some ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY cases the light that is hitting the retina is a bit out of - pulses of energy waves that can carry information focus. If the focus is in front of the retina, we say from place to place. that the person is nearsighted, and when the focus WAVELENGTH is behind the retina we say that the person is - the distance between one wave peak and the next farsighted. Eyeglasses and contact lenses correct wave peak, this problem by adding another lens in front of the eye, and laser eye surgery corrects the problem by reshaping the eye’s own lens.. OPTIC NERVES - collection of millions of ganglion neurons that sends vast amounts of visual information, via the EYES thalamus, to the brain. - Since the retina and the optic nerve are active processors and analyzers of visual information, it is not inappropriate to think of these structures as an extension of the brain itself. PERCEIVING COLORS HUE -Shade of a color -conveyed by the wavelength of the light that enters the eye (shorter wavelengths = blue ; longer wavelengths =red) CORNEA YOUNG-HELMHOLTZ TRICHROMATIC COLOR THEORY - a clear covering that protects the eye and begins to - proposes that color perception is the result of the focus the incoming light. signals sent by the three types of cones, whereas PUPIL the opponent-process color theory proposes that - a small opening in the center of the eye we perceive color as three sets of opponent colors: IRIS red-green, yellow-blue, and white-black. - colored part of the eye that controls the size of the COLOR BLINDNESS pupil by constricting or dilating in response to light - inability to detect either green and/or red colors. intensity OPPONENT-PROCESS COLOR THEORY - proposes that we analyze sensory information not LENS in terms of three colors but rather in three sets of - structure that focuses the incoming light on the “opponent colors”: red-green, yellow-blue, and RETINA- the layer of tissue at the back of the eye white-black. that contains photoreceptor cells. Retina has two types of Photoreceptor cells: PERCEIVING FORM RODS GESTALT - visual neurons that specialize in detecting black, - the “whole is more than the sum of its parts.” white, and gray colors. CONES - visual neurons that are specialized in detecting fine PERCEIVING DEPTH detail and colors. DEPTH PERCEPTION FOVEA - the ability to perceive three-dimensional space - the central point of the retina. and to accurately judge distance. VISUAL CLIFF PINNA - A mechanism that gives the perception of a - external and visible part of the ear dangerous drop-off, in which infants can be safely - guides soundwaves into the auditory canal tested for their perception of depth TYMPANIC MEMBRANE (EARDRUM) - tightly stretched, highly sensitive membrane which DEPTH CUES vibrates the waves - Our depth perception is the result of depth cues OSSICLES - It is a message from our bodies and the external - Vibrations are relayed into the middle ear through environment that supply us with information about tiny bones space and distance - the hammer (or malleus), anvil (or incus), and BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES stirrup (or stapes) - depth cues that are created by retinal image COCHLEA disparity—that is, the space between our eyes, and - snail-shaped liquid-filled tube in the inner ear thus which require the coordination of both eyes OVAL WINDOW CONVERGENCE - The membrane covering the opening of the - The inward turning of our eyes that is required to cochlea, to vibrate, disturbing the fluid inside the focus on objects that are less than about 50 feet cochlea away from us MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES TWO THEORIES AS HOW WE PERCEIVE PITCH: - depth cues that help us perceive depth using only 1. FREQUENCY THEORY OF HEARING one eye - proposes that whatever the pitch of a sound wave, nerve impulses of a corresponding frequency will be sent to PERCEIVING MOTION the auditory nerve. BETA EFFECT 2. PLACE THEORY OF HEARING - the perception of motion that occurs when different - proposes that different areas of the images are presented next to each other in cochlea respond to different frequencies. succession PHI PHENOMENON HEARING LOSS - We perceive a sensation of motion caused by the appearance and disappearance of objects that are CONDUCTIVE HEARING LOSS near each other - caused by physical damage to the ear that reduce the ability of the ear to transfer vibrations from the Light enters the eye through the transparent cornea outer ear to the inner ear and passes through the pupil at the center of the iris. The SENSORINEURAL HEARING LOSS lens adjusts to focus the light on the retina, where it appears - caused by damage to the cilia or to the auditory upside down and backward. Receptor cells on the retina are nerve, is less common overall but frequently occurs excited or inhibited by the light and send information to the with age visual cortex through the optic nerve. - Prolonged exposure to loud sounds will eventually create sensorineural hearing loss HEARING Sound waves enter the outer ear (the pinna) and are sent to the eardrum via the auditory canal. The resulting vibrations THE EAR are relayed by the three ossicles, causing the oval window FREQUENCY covering the cochlea to vibrate. The vibrations are detected - measured in terms of the number of waves that by the cilia (hair cells) and sent via the auditory nerve to the arrive per second and determines our perception of auditory cortex. PITCH- the perceived frequency of a sound. - Longer sound waves have lower frequency and TASTING produce a lower pitch, whereas shorter waves have higher frequency and a higher pitch. - helps us maintain appetite, assess potential AMPLITUDE: dangers (such as the odor of a gas leak or a - height of the sound wave, determines how much burning house), and avoid eating poisonous or energy it contains and is perceived as loudness spoiled food. (the degree of sound volume) TASTE BUDS DECIBEL - Designed to sense chemicals in the mouth - Unit of relative loudness - Allow us to detect six basic taste sensations: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, piquancy, and umami.  SELECTIVE ATTENTION SMELLING - he ability to focus on some sensory inputs while OLFACTORY RECEPTOR CELLS tuning out others - topped with tentacle-like protrusions that contain SENSORY ADAPTATION receptor proteins. When an odor receptor is - a decreased sensitivity to a stimulus after stimulated, the membrane sends neural messages prolonged and constant exposure. After prolonged up the olfactory nerve to the brain exposure to the same stimulus, our sensitivity toward it diminishes and we no longer perceive it. TOUCHING PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY - sense of touch is essential to human development - Ability to perceive a stimulus as constant despite as it communicates warmth, caring, and support, changes in sensation and is an essential part of the enjoyment we gain ILLUSIONS from our social interactions with close others - Occur when the perceptual processes that normally help us correctly perceive the world PROPRIOCEPTION around us are fooled by a particular situation so - ability to sense the position and movement of our that we see something that does not exist or that is body parts incorrect. - accomplished by specialized neurons located in MOON ILLUSION the skin, joints, bones, ears, and tendons, which - Refers to the fact that the moon is perceived to be send messages about the compression and the about 50% larger when it is near the horizon than contraction of muscles throughout the bod when it is seen overhead, despite the fact that both VESTIBULAR SYSTEM moons are the same size and cast the same size - set of liquid-filled areas in the inner ear that retinal image. monitors the head’s position and movement, Our emotions, motivations, desires, and even our culture can maintaining the body’s balance influence our perceptions. - includes the semicircular canals and the vestibular sacs that connect the canals with the cochlea. - Semivascular canal sense rotational movements of the body 5. STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS - Vestibular sacs sense linear accelerations CONSCIOUSNESS - our subjective awareness of ourselves and our EXPERIENCING PAIN environment - The experience of pain is how the body informs us - Our experience of consciousness is functional that we are in danger. because we use it to guide and control our behavior, and to think logically about problems GATE CONTROL CATEGORY - Consciousness allows us to plan activities and to - proposes that pain is determined by the operation monitor our progress toward the goals we set for of two types of nerve fibers in the spinal cord. ourselves. And consciousness is fundamental to our - explains how large and small neurons work sense of morality—we believe that we have the free together to transmit and regulate the flow of pain will to perform moral actions while avoiding to the brain. immoral behaviors. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS PERCEPTION - Regularly occurring cycles of behaviors SENSORY INTERACTION CIRCADIAN RHYTHM - the working together of different senses to create - “Circa” - About or approximately experience - “Dian” - daily - involved when taste, smell, and texture combine to - Guides the daily waking and sleeping cycle in man create the flavor we experience in food. It is also involved when we enjoy a movie because of the SLEEP STAGES: MOVING THROUGH THE NIGHT way the images and the music work together. MCGURK EFFECT RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (REM SLEEP) - error in perception that occurs when we - a sleep stage characterized by the presence of misperceive sounds because the audio and visual quick fast eye movements and dreaming parts of the speech are mismatched. - During REM sleep, our awareness of external events - an error in sound perception that occurs when is dramatically reduced, and consciousness is there is a mismatch between the senses of hearing dominated primarily by internally generated and seeing. You can experience it here. images and a lack of overt thinking NON-RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP (non-REM SLEEP) RESTLESS LEGS SYNDROME - a deep sleep, characterized by very slow brain - the sufferer reports an itching, burning, or otherwise waves, that is further subdivided into three stages: uncomfortable feeling in his N1, N2, and N3. - legs, usually exacerbated when resting or asleep N1 STAGE PERIODIC LIMB MOVEMENT DISORDER - During stage N1 sleep, some muscle tone is lost, as - Involves sudden involuntary movement of limbs. well as most awareness of the environment. Some people may experience sudden jerks or twitches HEAVY COSTS OF NOT SLEEPING and even vivid hallucinations during this initial stage of sleep. - prolonged lack of sleep results in increased anxiety, N2 STAGE diminished performance, and, if severe and - During stage N2, muscular activity is further extended, may even result in death. decreased and conscious awareness of the - Sleep deprivation suppresses immune responses environment is lost. This stage typically represents that fight off infection, and can lead to obesity, about half of the total sleep time in normal adults. hypertension, and memory impairment Stage N2 sleep is characterized by theta waves interspersed with bursts of rapid brain activity DREAMS AND DREAMING known as sleep spindles. N3 STAGE DREAMS - also known as slow wave sleep - the succession of images, thoughts, sounds, and - the deepest level of sleep, characterized by an emotions that passes through our minds while increased proportion of very slow delta waves. This sleeping is the stage in which most sleep abnormalities, - Freud believed that the primary function of dreams such as sleepwalking, sleep talking, nightmares, as wish fulfillment, or the idea that dreaming allows and bed-wetting occur. us to act out the desires that we must repress during the day - The real meaning of dreams is often suppressed by SLEEP DISORDERS: PROBLEMS IN SLEEPING the unconscious mind in order to protect the INSOMNIA individual from thoughts and feelings that are hard - Persistent difficulty falling or staying asleep to cope with. By uncovering the real meaning of - Temporary and may last from few days to several dreams through psychoanalysis, He believed that weeks, but some cases of insomnia can last for people could better understand their problems and years resolve the issues that create difficulties in their - can result from physical disorders such as pain due lives. to injury or illness, or from psychological problems ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY such as stress, financial worries, or relationship - Proposes another explanation for difficulties dreaming—namely, that dreams are our brain’s - Barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and other sedatives interpretation of the random firing of neurons in the are frequently marketed and prescribed as sleep brain stem. aids, but they may interrupt the natural stages of the sleep cycle, and in the end are likely to do more ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS WITH PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS harm than good. It may also promote dependence. SLEEP APNEA PSYCHOACTIVE DRUG - a sleep disorder characterized by pauses in - chemical that changes our states of consciousness, breathing that last at least 10 seconds during sleep and particularly our perceptions and moods. - caused by an obstruction of the walls of the throat - Psychoactive drugs are also frequently prescribed that occurs when we fall asleep as sleeping pills, tranquilizers, and antianxiety NARCOLEPSY medications, and they may be taken, illegally, for - disorder characterized by extreme daytime recreational purposes. sleepiness with frequent episodes of “nodding off.” - Four primary classes of psychoactive drugs: - Narcolepsy is in part the result of genetics—people stimulants, depressants, opioids, and hallucinogens who suffer from the disease lack neurotransmitters Problems in drugs: that are important in keeping us alert—and is also TOLERANCE the result of a lack of deep sleep. - an increase in the dose required to produce the SLEEP TERRORS same effect, which makes it necessary for the user - disruptive sleep disorder, most frequently to increase the dosage or the number of times per experienced in childhood, that may involve loud day that the drug is taken screams and intense panic. The sufferer cannot DEPENDENCE wake from sleep even though he or she is trying to. - need to use a drug or other substance regularly BRUXISM Users may wish to stop using the drug, but when they reduce - the sufferer grinds his teeth during sleep their dosage, they experience: WITHDRAWAL ALCOHOL - negative experiences that accompany reducing or - a colorless liquid, produced by the fermentation of stopping drug use, including physical pain and sugar or starch, that is the intoxicating agent in other symptoms. When the user powerfully craves fermented drinks the drug and is driven to seek it out, over and over - Alcohol increases the likelihood that people will again, no matter what the physical, social, financial, respond aggressively to provocations and legal cost and may develop ADDICTION in - Alcohol increases aggression in part because it drugs. reduces the ability of the person who has consumed it to inhibit his or her aggression SPEEDING UP THE BRAIN WITH STIMULANTS: CAFFEINE, BARBITURATES NICOTINE, COCAINE, AND AMPHETAMINES - depressants that are commonly prescribed as STIMULANT sleeping pills and painkillers - psychoactive drug that operates by blocking the - In small to moderate doses, barbiturates produce reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and relaxation and sleepiness, but in higher doses serotonin in the synapses of the CNS symptoms may include sluggishness, difficulty in - For these reasons, stimulants are frequently used to thinking, slowness of speech, drowsiness, faulty help people stay awake and to control weight. judgment, and eventually comma or even death CAFFEINE BENZODIAZEPINES - is a bitter psychoactive drug found in the beans, - a family of depressants used to treat anxiety, leaves, and fruits of plants, where it acts as a insomnia, seizures, and muscle spasms. natural pesticide. - In low doses, they produce mild sedation and NICOTINE relieve anxiety; in high doses, they induce sleep - psychoactive drug found in the nightshade family of plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide. TOXIC INHALANTS - main cause for the dependence-forming properties - are easily accessible as the vapors of glue, of tobacco use, and tobacco use is a major health gasoline, propane, hair spray, and spray paint, and threat. are inhaled to create a change in consciousness - One of the hardest addictions to break. COCAINE OPIOIDS: OPIUM, MORPHINE, HEROIN, AND CODEINE - an addictive drug obtained from the leaves of the coca plant OPIOIDS - It constricts blood vessels, dilates pupils, and - chemicals that increase activity in opioid receptor increases body temperature, heart rate, and blood neurons in the brain and in the digestive system, pressure. It can cause headaches, abdominal pain, producing euphoria, analgesia, slower breathing, and nausea. Since cocaine also tends to decrease and constipation appetite, chronic users may also become - The opioids activate the sympathetic division of the malnourished. The intensity and duration of ANS, causing blood pressure and heart rate to cocaine’s effects, which include increased energy increase, often to dangerous levels that can lead to and reduced fatigue, depend on how the drug is heart attack or stroke. taken. - Symptoms of opioid withdrawal include diarrhea, AMPHETAMINE insomnia, restlessness, irritability, and vomiting, all - stimulant that produces increased wakefulness and accompanied by a strong craving for the drug focus, along with decreased fatigue and appetite. - Opioid addicts suffer a high rate of infections such - Amphetamines may produce a very high level of as HIV, pericarditis (an infection of the membrane tolerance, leading users to increase their intake, around the heart), and hepatitis B, any of which can often in “jolts” taken every half hour or so. Although be fatal. the level of physical dependency is small, OPIUM amphetamines may produce very strong - the dried juice of the unripe seed capsule of the psychological dependence, effectively amounting opium poppy to addiction MORPHINE AND HEROIN - stronger, more addictive drugs derived from opium, CODEINE SLOWING DOWN THE BRAIN WITH DEPRESSANTS: - weaker analgesic and less addictive member of the ALCOHOL, BARBITURATES AND BENZODIAZEPINES, AND opiate family TOXIC INHALANTS DEPRESSANT HALLUCINOGENS: CANNABIS, MESCALINE AND LSD - Depressants are widely used as prescription medicines to relieve pain, to lower heart rate and HALLUCINOGENS (psychedelics) respiration, and as anticonvulsants. - drugs that produce the most extreme alteration of consciousness are the hallucinogens, psychoactive drugs that alter sensation and perception and that may create hallucinations CANNABIS (MARIJUANA) promote well-being and has also been shown to - Widely used hallucinogen that is Banned in America assist in controlling blood pressure under federal law - A study showed that during meditation, a larger - It acts as a stimulant, producing giggling, laughing, area of the brain was responsive to sensory stimuli, and mild intoxication and enhancing perception of suggesting that there is greater coordination sights, sounds, and smells, and may produce a between the two brain hemispheres as a result of sensation of time slowing down. It is less likely to meditation. lead to antisocial acts than other popular intoxicant, and it is also the one psychedelic drug whose use has not declined in recent years WHY WE USE PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 6. GROWING AND DEVELOPING DEVELOPMENT - Individual ambitions, expectations, and values also influence drug use - The physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social - Influenced by social norms as well as individual changes that occur throughout human life, which differences. People who are more likely to take risks are guided by both genetic predispositions (nature) are also more likely to use drugs and by environmental influences (nurture). INFANCY ALTERING CONSCIOUSNESS WITHOUT DRUGS - the developmental stage that begins at birth and continues to one year of age CHILDHOOD CHANGING BEHAVIOR THROUGH SUGGESTION: - Period between infancy and the onset of puberty THE POWER OF HYPNOSIS ADOLESCENCE HYPNOSIS - Years between onset of puberty and the beginning - trance-like state of consciousness, usually induced of adulthood by a procedure known as hypnotic induction, which ADULTHOOD consists of heightened suggestibility, deep - Including emerging, early, middle, and older relaxation, and intense focus adulthood and the preparations for and eventual - One common misconception about hypnosis is that facing of death. the hypnotist is able to “take control” of hypnotized patients and thus can command them to engage in behaviors against their will. Although hypnotized people are suggestible they nevertheless retain awareness and control of their behavior and are able to refuse to comply with the hypnotist’s suggestions if they so choose. In fact, people who have not been hypnotized are often just as suggestible as those who have been - Hypnosis is also frequently used to attempt to change unwanted behaviors, such as to reduce smoking, overeating, and alcohol abuse. REDUCING SENSATION TO ALTER CONSCIOUSNESS: SENSORY DEPRIVATION SENSORY DEPRIVATION CONCEPTION - intentional reduction of stimuli affecting one or - occurs when an egg from the mother is fertilized by more of the five senses, with the possibility of a sperm from the father resulting changes in consciousness - Begins with ovulation that occurs about halfway - used for relaxation or meditation purposes, and in through the woman’s menstrual cycle and is aided physical and mental health-care programs to by the release of a complex combination of produce enjoyable changes in consciousness. But hormones when deprivation is prolonged, it is unpleasant and ZYGOTE can be used as a means of torture - Fertilized ovum MEDITATION - Occurs when half of 23 chromosomes from the egg - techniques in which the individual focuses on and half of the 23 chromosomes from the sperm something specific, such as an object, a word, or fuse together. one’s breathing, with the goal of ignoring external EMBRYO distractions, focusing on one’s internal state, and - Lasts for 6 weeks achieving a state of relaxation and well-being. - Major internal and external organs are formed, - Research has found that regular meditation can each beginning at the microscopic level, with only a mediate the effects of stress and depression, and few cells  - Amniotic Sac - fluid-filled reservoir in which the JEAN PIAGET’S STAGE MODEL OF COGNITIVE embryo acts as both a cushion against outside DEVELOPMENT pressure and as a temperature regulator - Placenta - organ that allows the exchange of - Piaget argued that children do not just passively nutrients between the embryo and the mother, learn but also actively try to make sense of their while at the same time filtering out harmful worlds material - Umbilical Cord - inks the embryo directly to the SCHEMAS placenta and transfers all material to the fetus. - patterns of knowledge in long-term memory—that help them remember, organize, and respond to FETUS information. - Begins 9th week after contraception - begins to take on many of the characteristics of a ASSIMILATION human being, including moving, sleeping, as well as - Use already developed schemas to understand early forms of swallowing and breathing. They also new information. develop senses, becoming able to distinguish tastes and respond to sounds. ACCOMODATION - Sexual organs are visible on the 3rd month of - involves learning new information, and thus pregnancy changing the schema. HOW THE ENVIRONMENT AFFECTS FETUS TERATOGENS - The embryo and fetus are vulnerable and may be harmed by the presence of teratogens. - It includes general environmental factors, such as air pollution and radiation, but also the cigarettes, alcohol, and drugs that the mother may use FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS) - Piaget’s most important contribution was the idea - a condition caused by maternal alcohol drinking that development occurs in unique and distinct that can lead to numerous detrimental stages, with each stage occurring at a specific developmental effects, including limb and facial time, in a sequential manner, and in a way that abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental allows the child to think about the world using new retardation. capacities ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (HOMELESSNESS/POVERTY) SELF-CONCEPT - a condition caused by maternal alcohol drinking that can lead to numerous detrimental - knowledge representation or schema that contains developmental effects, including limb and facial knowledge about us, including our beliefs about our abnormalities, genital anomalies, and mental personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, retardation. values, goals, and roles, as well as the knowledge that we exist as individuals REFLEXES - A child's self knowledge continues to develop as the - Babies are equipped with a variety of reflexes, each child grows. providing an ability that will help them survive their - 2: the infant becomes aware of their sex. first few months of life as they continue to learn new - 4: self-descriptions are likely to be based routines to help them survive in and manipulate on physical features, such as hair color their environments. and possessions, - Rooting reflex - 6: the child is able to understand basic - Blink reflex emotions and the concepts of traits, being - Withdrawal reflex able to make statements such as, “I am a - Tonic neck reflex nice person” - Grasp reflex - Then they begin to make comparisons - Moro reflex with other children, a process known as - Stepping reflex social comparison. This then develops competence and autonomy or the recognition of one’s own abilities relative to other children