PSYCH 1X03 Exam Review 2 PDF

lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 Exam Review 2 Introduction to Psychology (McMaster University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected]) ...

lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 Exam Review 2 Introduction to Psychology (McMaster University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary CHAPTER 1 – RESEARCH METHODS Module – RESEARCH METHODS I Scientific Method: 1. theory – a general set of ideas about how the world works. 2. hypothesis – a testable statement guided by theories that make predictions between two variables in the theory. 3. research method – how the hypothesis is tested. 4. collect data – taking measurements of the outcomes of the test. 5. analyze data – discovering trends/relationships between the variables. 6. report findings – publishing articles in scholarly journals. 7. revise theories – including new information and revisions to theories (usually due to a paradigm shift). o paradigm shift – a dramatic change in the way we think. Hypothesis In-Depth: - anecdotal evidence – evidence gathered from others or self-experience. - problems with anecdotal evidence: o single experience might not properly represent the theory. o personal experience might not represent others. o cannot be sure about one factor affecting the results. - experiment – scientific tool used to measure the effect of one variable on another. - independent variable – manipulated by the scientist. - dependent variable – observed by the scientist. - experimenter usually controls the level of the independent variable; also measures this effect on the chosen measure of the independent variable. Control Groups: - helps to further manipulate the independent variable while measuring the effects on the dependent variable. - experimental group – receives a manipulation of the independent variable. o control group does not receive a manipulation. o allows for one to compare the dependent variable for both groups. - both groups should be as similar as possible in order to minimize difference; as a result, if a difference is found, then it is likely that the manipulation of the independent variable was the cause. Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design: - manipulating the independent variable within each participant to minimize the effect of external variables on the dependent variable. - minimizes the effect of subject differences on the dependent measure. - can be time consuming and costly; practice effect may become an issue. o practice effect – improved performance over course of an experiment due to becoming more experienced. Between-Subjects Design: - One group receives experimental manipulation, while the other is the control group. - Confounding Variable – a variable other than the independent variable that has an effect on the results. Sampling: - results from specific group(s) of participants cannot be generalized to other groups. - population – the people one is trying to learn about. - sample – members of the population that data is collected from. - best sample is a random sample. st 1 Step – Random Sample: - choosing a sample at random from the entire population. - reduces bias towards a specific group; hard to achieve. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary 2nd Step – Random Assignment: - assigning subjects to either the experimental or control group at random to avoid any biases that may cause differences between the groups of subjects. - also avoids bias. Conducting an Experiment: - placebo effect – effect that occurs when an individual exhibits a response to a treatment that has no related therapeutic effect; influences a range of independent variables o also a form of subject bias which influences the results of the experiment - participant bias – when a participant’s actions in an experiment influence the results outside of the manipulations of the experimenter - blinding – when participants do not know whether they belong to the experimental or control group, or which treatment they are receiving. - experimenter bias – actions made by the experimenter to promote the result they hope to achieve. - bias can be reduced… o if the experimenter does not know whether each participant belongs to the experimental/control group. o double-blind experiments – experiments in which neither the experimenter nor the participants know which group each participant belongs to. Module – RESEARCH METHODS II Working with Raw Data: - statistics allow one to summarize, interpret, and present the data we have collected. - descriptive statistics – presents information that gives an overall idea of the results of the experiment; mean, median, mode. Histograms: - visual summarizations of data (pie chart, bar graph…); type of graph used to report the number of times groups of values appear in a data set. o x-Axis = bins - frequency distribution – type of graph illustrating the distribution of how frequently values appear in the data set. o shows data given every possible outcome of an event. o in most cases, higher values are more frequent in the experimental group. - normal distribution – a distribution with a characteristic smooth, symmetrical, bell-shaped curve containing a single peak. o shows data for a given measure. Measures of Central Tendency: Mean: - tells us where a data set is centered; average value of a data set. - calculated by adding together all of the points in a data set and dividing by the number of items in the set. - influenced by outliers; extreme points, distant from others in a data set. Mode: - value that appears most frequently in the set. - tells us one of the most typical responses when looking at a data set; can be used for non-numerical data. Median: - centre value in a data set when the set is arranged numerically. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - says where the middle of the data set is, but is not influenced by an outlier.  all of these measures only focus on the centre/typical value, not others around that point. Measures of Variability: - reviews the spread and distribution of a data set. - standard deviation – a measure of the average distance of each point from the mean. o smaller spread = smaller SD larger spread = larger SD - some variability in results is due to chance. Inferential Statistics: - allow us to use results from samples to make inferences about overall populations. - scores without any manipulation follow a symmetrical distribution. - t-test – can be used to compare the difference between the data from the control and experimental groups. o considers each data point from both groups to calculate the probability that two samples were drawn from the same population. - p-value – expresses the probability calculated by the t-test. o usually best if there is a 2000 words; uses longer sentences. 6 years Understands >10 000 words; continues to develop sentence structure; fast mapping. Universal Phonemic Sensitivity: - ability to discriminate between virtually all phonemes even before an infant learns language. - conditioned head-turn procedure examples: o familiar phoneme is presented (repeatedly) – the infant loses interest  infant has habituated to the sound of the phoneme. o novel phoneme is presented (following a familiar phoneme) – the infant shows no interest  infant is unable to discriminate between the phonemes. o novel phoneme is presented (following a familiar phoneme) – the infant turns their head  infant can discriminate between the phonemes. - perceptual narrowing – loss of universal phoneme sensitivity; occurs when individuals begin to specialize in a language; suggests that this phenomenon us somewhat inherent, but shaped by early experiences. o losing the ability to distinguish between contrasts in sounds not used in native language. o our perceptual abilities are influenced by the stimuli to which we are exposed. - infant-directed speech – when people talk to infants, they tend to speak in a higher pitch, and exaggerate changes in pitch and use of rhythm. o exaggerated changes in pitch helps infants discriminate between vowel sounds, aiding in t he learning of vowel sound categories. Early Language Skills: - still-face procedure – adult looks at an infant while maintain a neutral facial expression. o 2 – 3-month-old infants will become distressed; shows that they have some sort of expectation about how face-to-face interactions should go. - cooing – pre-linguistic behaviour; parents can practice “conversational skills” by cooing back, or vocally responding to them. - pragmatics – the skills that allow children to communicate effectively in a social situation. o develop throughout childhood and adolescence. o holophrastic phase – occurs at ~1 year; a single word is used to indicate meaning of an entire sentence. - naming explosion (word spurt) – when vocabulary expansion hits a rapid increase (~18 – 24 months). - fast mapping – children learn the meaning of a word following 1 – 2 encounters with it (~6 years). Receptive & Expressive Vocabulary: - expressive – words that children use to speak. - receptive – words that children understand, but do not necessarily use yet. Further Characteristics of Language Development: - overextensions – using a specific word for a broader set of related items; include both semantic and syntax errors. - underextensions – a general term is used for a particular thing. - overextensions in production persist longer than overextensions in comprehension/ - telegraphic Speech – short phrases that only contain crucial information that they are trying to communicate (like a telegram). - over-regularizations – syntactic errors which involve using a grammatical rule too broadly. Theories of Language Development: Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - social learning theory - innate mechanism theory (language acquisition device). Interactionist Theories of Language Development: - combined role of nature and nurture. - children are biologically prepared for language, but also require extensive experience with language in the environment for adequate development. - three influences on language: biological maturation of the brain, social interaction, and cognitive preparedness. MODULE - language is: regular, arbitrary, productive. o regular – regulated by the rules of grammar. o arbitrary – sounds assigned to concepts are random; words arbitrarily represent meaning. o productive – can be combined in many ways. Whorf-Sapir Hypothesis: - language influences our perception of the world, alongside how we think. o ex. Piraha tribe’s simplistic numbering system. o counter-evidence – relative labels in different countries. Structure of Language: - morpheme – smallest unit of sound that contains some sort of information; can be a single word, or a multiple morpheme word. o each provides a chink of information about a word. o ex. Ta ble, table cloth, table s. - phoneme – smallest units of sound in a word; the broken-down sounds of a morpheme; ck-, ai-, kn-, oo- … - syntax – rules that dictate how sentences should be composed; grammar. - semantics – meaning of a word (noun, verb, etc…). Language Development in Infants: Babbling: - drawn-out sounds made up of repetitive vowels/consonants in combination. - inflection/rhythm makes it seem like a question/response. - combinations eventually become real words. Language Explosion: - 1 ½ - 6 years: major increase in vocabulary, mastery of various aspects of language; syntax complexity improves. Segmentation Problem: - someone speaking another language can sound like it’s being spoken quickly. - infants who have good speech segmentation skills have larger expressive vocabularies as children. - can lead to screening tests to predict future language development issues. Universal Phonetic Sensitivity: - ability of infants to discriminate between various sounds that they might encounter in a test - infants can distinguish more phonemes than adults. - children develop phonemic sensitivity based on the language they grew up with. - head-turn procedure – measures perception of phonemes. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - infants perform equally as well as native speakers when distinguishing between foreign phonemes. o disappears by the end of their 1st year living. - Adults need more practice than infants to find phonemes in a new language. Theories of Language Development: Social Learning Theory: - children learn language through imitation/operant conditioning; “nurture” component of language. - lack of early social interaction leads to a less-developed set of language skills. o counter-argument – children learn language too quickly to be solely influenced by social interaction. Overextensions & Underextensions: - overextensions – rule applied too broadly; improper grammar, using a specific label for too general a group. - underextensions – rule applied too specifically; meaning only applies to one object/thing. Innate Mechanism Theory: - also known as a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) – innate mechanism that helps for language to develop based upon universal rules; only humans. - all languages follow fundamental, underlying, rules; ex. sign language. - infants’ brains are wired to listen to speech, even if they don’t understand language. Animal Communication: The Waggle Dance – Bees: - communicates the location of food for other bees. - waggle phase – distance of waggle = distance of food; angle of waggle = direction of food. - return phase – returns either to left or right, forming a figure-8 pattern. Washoe: - demonstrates differences in animal vs. human communication. - could use signs to communicate, but not systematic grammar. Sarah: - taught to use symbols to communicate, and answer simple questions. - could not combine phonemes, or form sentences. Kanzi: - used lexigrams to communicate. - used full immersion (learning by observation) instead of classical conditioning. - could communicate some novel requests, but had limited grammar. - language is a defining characteristic of human cognition. LECTURE - language – complex system; allows us to share details/emotions with others. - rules of making a language: o grammar (clear rules) – syntax/morphology. o lexicon – meaningful descriptions. Neuroscience of Swearing: - activates right hemisphere (area associated with negative emotion). o basal ganglia – where swears are produced. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o amygdala – where we “hear” them. 4 Categories of Swearing: - supernatural – religious; emotions of awe/fear. - body effluvia/organs – emotions of disgust. - disease/death/sickness – emotions of dread. - sexuality – negative emotions; exploitation, incest, jealousy… QUIZTERM CONTENT – THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING JOURNAL - cramming, rereading, highlighting; considered ineffective strategies. - curricula are more focused on providing content – not showing students how to effectively learn it. o emphasis on what needs to be learned, not on how one should learn the content. - current textbooks do not cover effective learning strategies. o strategies taught to professors have little benefit in any event. Learning Strategies Addressed: - practice testing – self-testing/ taking practice tests on material that will be learned. - distributed practice – making a study schedule that spreads content out over time. - interleaved practice – a practice schedule that mixes different kinds of problems or content reviewed in a study session. - elaborative interrogation – creating an explanation for why a fact is true. - self-explanation – explaining how information relates to each other, or the steps of problem solving. - rereading – restudying text material at least once more after an initial read. - highlighting & underlining – marking important parts of content when reading through it. - summarization – creating summaries of the content. - keyword mnemonic – keywords/mental images associated with the content. - imagery for text – forming mental images of text materials while reading. Most Effective Strategies: - practice testing and distributed practice. - help students regardless of age; enhance learning/comprehension of a large range of materials, boost student achievement. Practice Testing: - boosts long-term memory; unlike simply reading a text, when students correctly retrieve an answer from memory, the correct retrieval can have a direct effect on memory. - practice tests can help students make better decisions about what needs further practice, and what does not. - helps students make better decisions about what needs further practice, and what does not. - students benefit most from tests that require recall from memory, not tests that ask them to recognize an answer. - if retrieving information from memory, does not require creating a bank of test questions to serve as practice tests. - students should be encouraged to take notes in a manner that will foster practice tests. - as the material becomes more complex, teachers should encourage students to write down the answers when they are testing themselves. - students should continue to test themselves until they correctly recall each concept at least once from memory. - more closely the practice questions tap the same information that will be tested on the in-class examination, the better students will do. Distributed Practice: - massed practice – practicing something multiple times in succession, and then moving on to something else while repeating the same process. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - students will retain knowledge and skills for a longer period of time when they distribute their practice, compared to when they mass it, even if they use the same amount of time massing and distributing their practice. - learning feels more difficult when using distributed practice, but it is essential for keeping knowledge over longer periods of time. - D.P. used in real life through various situations, yet many do not use it to work towards mastering the course content. - each study block will be smaller than an all-night cram session, and would involve studying (and using practice tests) for material that was recently introduced in class, and for material studied in previous sessions. - repeating key points in a lecture emphasizes the most important content, along with giving students distributed practice. Strategies with Much Promise: Interleaved Practice: - distributing practice across a study session, while varying the order of the content you study. - improves student achievement, specifically in problem solving. - those who interleaved did 3x better on an exam than those who mass practiced. - slows learning, but leads to greater retention. - require distributing practice, which is proven to benefit one’s studying. - also forces students to identify and evaluate problems, while massed practice allows one to pass over that aspect. - interleaved practice does not seem to help in areas surrounding language and grammar. Elaborative Interrogation & Self-Explanation: - elaborative interrogation – explaining why a certain piece of content is true, even if the explanations are not entirely correct. - self-explanation – relating new information to knowledge that one already knows; explaining to yourself why you made a particular decision. - success rate of solving problems did not change for those self-explaining compared to those who don’t; though it did change for the better when approaching a new problem. - both methods encourage students to actively process the content they are studying, and compare it to prior knowledge. - majority of research conducted on elaborative interrogation has been conducted on isolated facts instead of bunches of content. - to take full advantage of self-explanation: you need to self-explain and not paraphrase what they are learning. - issues: o those who have no idea about this new content could find it difficult to use elaborative interrogation. o as a result, not as useful for younger students who may not have as broad of an academic career as someone who is older. Less Useful Strategies (Most Used by Students): Rereading and Highlighting: - 84% of students studied by rereading their notes/textbooks. - any benefits of rereading may not be long-lasting, nor may it enhance one’s understanding of the content. - highlighting - by focusing on individual concepts while highlighting, students may have spent less time thinking about connections across concepts. Summarization: - paraphrasing the most important ideas within a text. - shows some success in helping undergrads learn, but needs extensive training in order to work effectively. Keyword Mnemonic & Imagery for Text: - imagery – developing internal images that help to elaborate on what one is studying. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - increases retention of the material being studied, especially when being tested shortly after; however, only lasts a short time, and cannot be widely applied. Tips for Using Effective Learning Strategies: - give a low-stakes quiz at the beginning of each class, and focus on the most important material. - give a cumulative examination, which should encourage students to restudy the most important material in a distributed fashion. - encourage students to develop a “study planner”, so they can distribute their study throughout a class, and rely less on cramming. - encourage students to use practice retrieval when studying instead of passively rereading their books and notes. - encourage students to use practice retrieval when studying instead of passively rereading their notes. - encourage students to elaborate on what they are reading, such as by asking “why” questions. - mix problems from earlier content with new ones (if applicable), so that students can practice identifying problems and their subsequent solutions. - tell students that highlighting is fine, but only the beginning of the learning journey. MODULE Where to Study: - multi-tasking – simultaneous completion of two or more tasks. - brains are not wired to multi-task; we switch between multiple tasks, and perceive it as being more efficient, even though it decreases overall efficiency. - “impairments associated with using a cell phone while driving can be as profound as those associated with driving with a blood-alcohol level of 0.08%.” - to counter distraction: o find a quiet location with little to no distraction. o keep snacks nearby so you don’t need to get them. o keep devices away from your work area. o use special software to keep you on track if you use electronics. o if you take a break, focus on that; if you’re working, focus on that. Pomodoro Technique: - 25 minutes of focussed working, without distraction, with 5 minutes of break after each “session”. - after 4 cycles of this, take a 30-minute break. - goal is to go long periods of time without task switching, while preventing burnout. When to Study: - spacing effect – by distributing learning over time, one can learn content in less total study time; founded to Hermann Ebbinghaus. - distributed approach to practicing harnesses the spacing effect; allows more learning per unit time. How to Study: - sleep strengthens memories and promotes problem-solving. - repeated exposure – rereading, highlighting… 81% of students use this strategy. o leads to rapid learning in the short-term; helpful if cramming the night before an assessment, and if said assessment involves low memorization. o intuitive way to study, and makes us feel like we’re learning. - retrieval practice effect – describes how studying some information, attempting to retrieve it from memory, and then re-studying it, leads to better long-term memory than the equivalent amount of time simply studying. o active memory search – using retrieval practice strengthens the connections between the new bits of knowledge and the correct answer; creates a more coherent network in memory that is less vulnerable to being forgotten. - tips: Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o cover up your notes while retrieving. o space out your retrieval practice. o 3x3 rule of thumb – studying until you can retrieve the information three separate times within the same study session; then retrieving the information three times over multiple study sessions.  has a good balance between spending the least amount of time studying, and retaining the information on a long-term scale. o mixed practice – mixing up topics while studying enhances learning. - desirable difficulties – slow down learning at first, but ultimately improve understanding and long-term memory. CHAPTER 6 – CATEGORIES MODULE - attention – helps to focus a limited amount of mental resources on important parts of an active scene. - memory – helps to recall specific thoughts/behaviours which tailor to your current situation. - without the cognitive ability to categorize, every sensory experience would be completely unique. Functions of Categorization: - classification – groups different objects into the same category. - understanding – identifying the intentions of a situation. - predicting – uses past experiences to know what to expect. - communication – uses specific words to describe ideas efficiently. - illusion of the expert – the feeling that a task must be simple for everyone because it is simple for oneself. Rules: - humans have an internal representation of categories that is independent of the rules we try to define. - people are not able to define simple rules for more complex categories. - number of people who can identify rules for categories decreases as the complexity of the category rises. Prototype Theory: - we categorize objects by comparing them to an internal “best” representation of a given category; average of your experiences. - new objects compared to the average representation in prototype theory. - category members that are closer to the prototype are categorized quicker and easier than atypical category members. - cannot explain why internal representations change over time. - single case is blended into the averaged prototype; has little to no effect. - explains simple categorization better than exemplar theory. Exemplar Theory: - we categorize objects by comparing them to every previously-stored experience (exemplar) in a given category; store a lifetime worth of experiences. - any increase to the number of relevant exemplars would improve categorization performance. Development of Categorization: - children as young as 3 are able to understand general categories. - category membership – members of the same categories share similar characteristics. - children can understand hypothetical categorization as well. o also have an understanding of the innate properties of a category. Animal Categorization: - baboons can be taught to classify objects with high accuracy, and how to classify using more abstract rules (same vs. different). Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - animal categorization may not necessarily demonstrate language ability. Dermatologists Study: - showed that diagnostic accuracy was highest for conditions that the dermatologist had seen and diagnosed recently, supporting the exemplar theory. ARTICLES Don’t Know Much of Biology: - showed a group of college students a long list of words in order to see how quickly and accurately the volunteers used movement and naturalness to classify these things as living or non-living. - had trouble classifying plants, and moving things in a general sense; both college students and professors with specializations in Biology has this issue. - children have an urge to see the world as designed and simple, and to be the centre of it all. - we tend to associate motion with life, although they are not always paired. Are Our Brains Wired for Categorization? - visual cortex’s organization around processing animate and inanimate objects is similar in sighted and blind people. - wiring system that connects different areas of the visual cortex with appropriate regions in the rest of the brain is innate; does not have to form gradually based on visual inputs. - organization of the brain has to be understood in terms of our evolutionary history. LECTURE - ability to form concepts/categories allows efficient navigation through the world. - 3 Levels of Category Distinction: o basic – most common; most abstract level that objects have similar shapes; about the same reaction time for an expert and a novice. o superordinate – more general; high accuracy, low predictive power. o subordinate – more specific; low accuracy, high predictive power. - expertise determines speed of category verification. - new exemplar is classified by its similarity to the prototype. - typicality infleunces verification times. - prototypes can be directly formed through instruction, or indirectly through inductive learning. CHAPTER 7 – ATTENTION TEXTBOOK - flashbulb memories – vivid experiences; have a “live” quality feeling. - we remember what we pay attention to, and our attention is shaped by what we remember. - psychologists are studying how attentional processes are guided by: o focussing limited mental resources on the immediate task. o monitoring ongoing stimuli to evaluate their potential significance and shifting the allocation of mental resources when necessary. Tools to Measure Attention: - cocktail party effect – despite competing background noises, a listener can focus on a single channel, and still pick out relevant salient information from the background. - dichotic listening paradigm – headphones worn; different messages played to each ear. o participant has to shadow (repeat) what is said in the attended ear. Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processing: Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - bottom-up processing – stimulus-driven mechanism in which attention is captured by salient change in the environment; automatically-captured attention; automatic nature. - top-down processing – purposefully capturing attention; one can strategically direct their attention to match their expectations from experience through memory; controlled nature. Orienting and Spatial Cueing Paradigm: - orienting – the act by which attention moves across a scene. - spatial cueing paradigm – allows the experimenter to measure shifts in attention in the absence of eye movements. - overt attending – where you are attending is also where you are looking. - covert attending – where you are attending is not where you are looking; invisible shifts of attention. o measured in the efficiency with which targets are detected at cued locations. - inhibition of return (IOR) – occurs when you try to redirect your attention to a previously attended location, where a target was not found. o if the time between the cue onset and the target is greater than 300 ms, you are slower to detect the target at cued locations than uncued locations. o prevents your gaze from revisiting areas that are irrelevant to your attention. Visual Search Paradigm: - models how we search for items in our environment. - pop-out effect – bottom-up capture of attention due to the salience of the physical attributes of the target. o time it takes to respond is independent of set size; processing of items happens in parallel. - conjunctive search – trying to find a target based upon multiple features. o response time increases with set size. - contextual cueing: o schemas – a representation depicting the range of plausible objects and likely configuration of those objects within particular scenes. o suggests an implicit memory mechanism, since your memory for the global spatial configuration of the display from your memory provides context in finding your target. Unattended Items: - some participants who took part in the dichotic listening paradigm reported no explicit memory for unattended message content. - word meaning may be processed pre-attentively (before attention is committed). Inattentional Blindness: - our limited attentional processes can be susceptible to missing out on important/salient information. - we are faster at detecting the change if we know which part of the image is changing. - change blindness paradigm – illustrates the important role of attention in perceiving change. The Stroop Task: - automatic process of word reading interferes with the ability to name the coloured ink when the word and ink colour are incongruent. - no all complex processes require attention; numerous experiences/practice with tasks allow us to perform them almost automatically. Models of Attention: - spotlight model of spatial attention Filter: - early-selection theory: broadbent’s model: o physical characteristics of sensory information are briefly stored/analyzed. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o incoming information goes through a bottleneck which selects a limited amount of the information to pass on for further processing. - attenuation theory: treisman’s model: o unattended information is “turned down”; all information passes through, but with different “weights” depending on whether the information is physically similar to the target or not. - late-selection model: o filter placed after all of the incoming information has been analyzed for physical/semantic content. o only selected information is maintained, so the unselected information fades. - last 2 models may be able to account for the cocktail party effect. MODULE - phenomenon  model  hypothesis - selection – act of attending to an object to select it apart from the unattended objects; ex. light flashing in periphery. - attention (alternate definition) – one’s conscious ability to attend to the information that is relevant to our goals. - irrelevant information acts as “noise” that makes it difficult to attend to the important information. - when irrelevant information overwhelms us, we get distracted. Automatic and Controlled Attention: - automatic processes – involuntarily capturing attention through being triggered by external events; fast, efficient, obligatory. - controlled processes – voluntary, conscious attention to objects of interest; slow, effortful (due to more cognitive effort); ex. driving (changing lanes, stations, etc…). - our attentional resources are limited, and must be controlled carefully. - salient information – found in automatic processes; information that captures our attention automatically, intentionally or not. - consciously effortful tasks can be come automatic through practice. The Spotlight Model (Michael Posner): - attentional “spotlight” focusses on one part of the environment at a time. - can be consciously directed across a visual scene; can also be taken over by unconscious processes that quickly grab your attention. - objects within the spotlight = faster reaction time, higher accuracy. Cuing Paradigms: - suing to target can ease the fluency of processing at that location. - test the automatic processes of attention. - participant determines whether a star appears in the left or right box on a screen. o box that flashes may not contain the star. - flashing box automatically attracts the attentional spotlight to the cued location. o if target is in cued location: attention will amplify the perceptual processing of the target (detected quickly). o if target is in uncued location: target detected slower, since attentional spotlight is directed elsewhere. - attention does not immediately rely on sight; attentional spotlight can still miss important information. Filter Models: - audio cues are used to filter target sounds from background noise. - cocktail party effect – the ability to separate target sounds from background noise is based on physical characteristics (gender, pitch, speech speed…). - filters suppress noise; spotlights enhance stimuli. o information  filter  further processing. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o Single Filter Model (Donald Broadbent): - attentional filter selects important information based on physical characteristics; allows the information to continue on for further processing. - information that does not pass through the early physical filter is deemed “unimportant”. - accepts less information than dual filter model. Dichotic Listening Paradigm: - different messages in each ear; attended ear message must be shadowed back to the experimenter. - subjects remember nothing about unattended information. - information going through attended ear goes to deeper processing. Dual Filter Model (Treisman): - two filters: one physical, one semantic. o physical – information processed based on physical cues; weighs importance of incoming stimuli against physical cues. o semantic – information processed based on meaning; accounts for:  weights assigned by the physical filter, deeper meaning, relevance of stimuli.  then chooses which information should be attended to. o explains Broadbent’s findings from D.L. Paradigm, alongside how breakthrough and Von Wright’s findings apply. - semantic filter can override the physical filter’s decisions, through considering the meaning of information. - breakthrough effect – participants remember unattended information, especially when it is highly relevant (ex. name). - cocktail party – can be explained by both single and dual filter models. - both filters – decreased processing of irrelevant information. The Stroop Task: - requires you to focus your attention on ink-colour (relevant to task), while ignoring the word itself (irrelevant task). - congruent items – contain matching word/colour dimensions; “red” written in red. - incongruent items – contain mismatching word/colour dimensions; “blue” written in green. - congruent elicits a faster response than incongruent. - attention is facilitated by stimulus relevance. o congruent trials – facilitates colour naming performance. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o incongruent trials – interferes with colour naming performance. - proportion congruent manipulation – change the ratio of congruent: incongruent trials. o ex. 75% congruent, 25% incongruent  increased Stroop effect. - high congruency tests bias attention to task-irrelevant information. o if a strategy develops for congruency trials, it would cause one’s results to suffer on incongruent trials; larger Stroop effect. - low congruency tests bias attention to task-relevant information; ex. actively ignoring the words since most will not match the colour  low Stroop effect. - automatic evidence – word reading influences performance, even when the word is ignored. - controlled evidence – adopting consciously-controlled word reading strategies can change the Stroop effect. - word reading = automatic process (fast). Visual Search Tests: - test how we use everyday attention; looking for a specific target within multiple distractions. - set size – the number of items to search through. - set size effect – increase in difficulty as set size increases. - single-feature search task – looking for only one particular feature to identify the target. - pop-out effect – single feature; object of a visual search is easily found, regardless of size; ex. colour. - conjunctive search task – identifying a target defined by 2+ features. - contextual cuing – helps to search more efficiently; gained through knowledge of our environment. LECTURE - vigilance – ability to maintain attention. - change blindness – even with directed focus, attention limits lead us to miss information. - attention is a dialogue between bottom-up and top-down processing. o bottom-up – external environment; facts, surroundings… o top-down – internal thoughts; bias, ideas… - hemi spatial neglect – paying attention to only half the world; affects reality, memories… o damage to the right parietal lobe. o left hemisphere attends to right side; right hemisphere attends to both sides. o if left parietal lobe damaged: right still accounts for attention of both sides. CHAPTER 8 – MEMORY MODULE Problems with Memory Metaphors: Data: - stored data is identical to inputted information. - retrieved data is identical to inputted information. Memory: - stored memory includes personal details and interpretations. - retrieved memory may be altered or lost. - forgetting – stored memories are frequently lost as time passes. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - data does not equal memory. o several people watching the same event will usually remember it differently. o memories can change, and be forgotten over time. The Basics of Memory: - psychologists study how memory is acquired, encoded, stored, and retrieved. o acquisition & encoding  storage  retrieval - cue-response mechanism – one memory acts as a cue to trigger another memory. Herman Ebbinghaus: - memory is a serial learning task. - each word connects the word before and after it; like pearls in a necklace. - our ability to recall recently encoded information decreases rapidly over time. o ability to recall words was highest immediately following learning. - forgetting curve – total forgetting always increases; rate of forgetting decreases over time. - models – describe/organize data; make specific hypotheses that are studied through controlled experiments in lab. - basic memory task: o encoding phase – subject learns a list of items, words, or pictures. o retrieval phase – subjects are tested for their memory of the items presented during the encoding phase.  recall test – generate as many items as one can remember; not given any external cues.  recognition test – several items shown; asked to mark whether each item is new or old. Multi-Store Model: - proposed by Atkinson & Shiffrin. - memory is composed of short and long term storage systems. - short-term memory buffer – available for a short period of time; not stored permanently; information can be transferred to long term memory through rehearsal. - if LTM and STM represent separate stores of memory that interact dynamically, changes caused by manipulating specific variables can be isolated. George Miller: - short term memory capacity – 7 ± 2 items. - organizing items into meaningful chunks expands the capacity of short-term memory. The Serial Position Curve: - memory is strongest for items at the beginning and end of a list. - primacy effect – occurs when there is increased rehearsal of early items over later ones. o items at the beginning of the list enter STM first, and have the most opportunity to be rehearsed. o greater change of being transferred into LTM. - middle of the list have less opportunity for rehearsal/LTM transfer than those at the start. - recency effect – least opportunity for rehearsal/LTM transfer, but recall is high. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o more recent items replace the previous items to occupy short-term memory. Improving Primacy: - primacy effect is enhanced when using a longer time interval, relative to a shorter time interval between presented items. - increasing time between item presentations increases: o amount of times each item can be repeated. o probability of item being stored in long-term memory. o performance recalling first couple of items. Diminishing Recency: - manipulation that causes most recent contents of the STM to be replaced/disrupted neutralizes the Recency Effect. - disrupting the short-term memory buffer affects the Recency Effect. - performing a distracting task diminishes the Recency Effect. o distractions require STM resources; causes the most recent items to be disrupted from the STM buffer. Levels of Processing Principle: - memory performance depends on level at which items are encoded; improves for increasingly deeper levels of processing. - more we try to organize and understand the material, the better we remember it; paying attention to surface details leads to poorer recall. Shallow Level: - encode physical characteristics. - encoding requires little effort. - poor memory performance. Deeper Level: - encode semantic characteristics. - encoding requires significant effort. - better memory performance. - when processing was manipulated during encoding…: o shallow / physical – is the word in capital letters? o moderate / acoustic – does the word rhyme? o deep / semantic – does the word fit in a sentence? Encoding Specificity: - memory encodes all aspects of an experience; the context that we learn information in is encoded along with the information itself. - environmental cues are encoded together with memories for items and events. - preserving encoding context improves subsequent recall of a memory. Memory Illusions and Fluency: - loftus – our susceptibility to false memories indicate that memory is a reconstructive process. - repeated imagination of any event can lead to the event being falsely remembered; can confuse false events with actual events. - memory is reconstructive; open to re-interpretation. - (processing) fluency – ease with which an experience is processed; some experiences are more fluent than others. - familiar experiences processed more fluently than novel (new) experiences. - attribution – judgment tying together causes with effects; used to make sense of fluency. - time between exposure and recall affects our attributions to fluency. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - memories exist by reconstructing them when we need to remember them. - Bartlett – memory is building blocks that are made up of perception and experience. TEXTBOOK 3 Processes of Memory: - encoding – how information initially enters into memory; highly dependent on attention. - storage – how the record of memory is maintained over time; can be modified. - retrieval – recovering stored information; dependent on retrieval cues (information that triggers memory). - cues integrated during memory encoding. Sensory Memory: - transient maintenance of perceptual and physical information from the recent past; not limited by attention. - iconic memory – visual information; represented by the visual system. - echoic memory – auditory information; represented by the auditory system. - sensory memory decays at an extremely fast rate. Short-Term (Working) Memory: - unrehearsed selected information stays in STM for ~20 s; rehearsed (repeated) information stays for longer. - chunking – information is organized into sets of familiar groups of items; increases STM. Working Memory: - upgrade to the original conceptualization of STM; has three stores: o phonological Loop – maintains information that can be rehearsed verbally. o visuospatial Sketchpad – temporarily represents/manipulates visual information. o episodic Buffer – draws on the other buffers alongside other stored LTM. - central exclusive – coordinates and manipulates information that is maintained in the buffers; allows for working memory to be more flexible than short-term memory. Long-Term Memory: - once information is transferred from STM into LTM, new information is organized according to prior knowledge. - concepts that are more closely related are more directly connected. - information transferred both ways; ex. remembering the past (LTM to STM). - past memories largely linked to attention (top-down control). - schemas – mental frameworks for interpreting the world around us based upon prior experiences. Long-Term Memory Systems: - declarative memories – memory from factual information. - semantic memories – information not tied to a specific place or time. - episodic memories – tied to a particular place and time. - non-declarative memories – learned actions and procedures, skills, implicit memories…; difficult to explain.  hippocampus is vital for STM memory and trace formation, but LTM processes are apparent throughout cortex. o hippocampus still important for the coordination of memories for activation in consciousness. Effect of Rehearsal: - free-recall paradigm: Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary o participants study a list of words presented one at a time; each word represents a specific spot in the list. o greater recall of words at the beginning and end of the list. - primacy effect – reflect retrieval of words from LTM. - recency effect – retrieval of words from STM. - STM relies on rehearsal; LTM does not. - sensory memory perceives sensory information which is selectively held online by STM and with rehearsal through STM components may be transferred and stored in LTM. Levels of Processing: - memory not divided into separate stores; more like a continuum. - items encoded at a deeper level last longer in memory than at a shallower level. - vague model; does not go in-depth about what a “deeper” level is. Enriched Encoding: - mnemonic strategy – information encoded with yourself in mind is better remembered than if you had someone else in mind; also known as the self-referent effect. - reflects the deepest level of processing. Encoding Specificity: - effectiveness of the context as a cue is largely dependent on the specificity of its relations to the item. - memory is better for items encoded and retrieved in the same environment. Transfer-Appropriate Processing: - memory is aided when similar processes are engaged at encoding and retrieval. - words processed in semantic sentences are better remembered than those in rhyming sentences. Forgetting: - reduces the potential interference from out-of-date memories; allows for more efficient remembering of current information. - memory savings – difference in the time it takes to memorize a list at test vs retest (Ebbinghaus). - decay theory – memories fade with time; explains STM loss, but not LTM loss. - interference – a cue that was once associated with one memory is now associated with another, making it more difficult to retrieve the original memory. Proactive Interference: - interfering information was learned prior to the specific memory; ex. old memory from French interfering with the retrieval of one’s newer memory for Spanish words. - experimental group reads list A and B; control group reads B. o proactive interference in play if the experimental group remembers fewer words than the control group. Retroactive Interference: - new information interferes with the retrieval of old information. - experimental group studies list A and B; control group studies list A and is distracted. o both groups recall words from list A; retroactive interference occurs if the experimental group remembers fewer words than the control group. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary Temporary Forgetting: - tip-of-tongue state – often occurs for people’s names and common words. - words that induce this state in the past will do so in the future; word is more associated with error-prone process each time it’s in this state. Repression: - Freud – horrific memories can be repressed as a defence mechanism. Memory Errors: - misinformation effect – creation of false memories by incorporating new erroneous information with an old memory. Source Confusion: - source monitoring – process by which we make attributions about the origins of memories. - source monitoring error – failing to recall exactly where you learned this information. - false fame effect – incorrectly judging a name as being famous because it seems familiar (fluently processed). - reality monitoring – ability to discriminate real memories from those that are imagined. CHAPTER 9 – FORMING IMPRESSIONS: - conscious/unconscious judgments you make lead to social perceptions. Attribution Theories: Correspondence Inference Theory: - uses the variables listed below in order to infer about a situation. o degree of choice, expectation, intended consequences. Expectation: - whether a behaviour is common or atypical. - uncommon behaviour gives one more information than common; more information available to infer a cause to said behaviour. Degree of Choice: - considering to what degree a person had a choice in the way they act. - ex. being assigned to a certain topic in a debate, vs. genuinely believing in that stance. - strong degree of choice = unassigned; choice of the person. Intended Consequences: - intentions and motives behind a certain behaviour. Covariation Theory: - personal or situational circumstances that can be attributed to one’s behaviour; determined through 3 variables. o consistency, distinctiveness, consensus. Consistency: - does one usually behave like this in this particular situation? Distinctiveness: - does one’s behaviour vary depending on the situation? - if yes  situational; if no  dispositional. o situational – driven by the situation. o dispositional – driven by the individual (inherent qualities of said person). Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary Consensus: - do others behave in a similar manner when presented with this situation? - if yes  situational; if no  dispositional. o situational – this situation similarly influences everyone. o dispositional – due to each individual’s disposition. Fundamental Attribution Error: - tendency to over-value dispositional factors for observed behaviours of others while under-valuing situational factors. - rely more on dispositional factors than situational factors for interpreting behaviour. - usually used when determining the cause of someone else’s behaviour rather than your own. - FAE – behaviour of others is due to dispositional factors. - actor observer effect - considering the situational factors of your own behaviour; assume the individual’s behaviour is typical. Cultural Differences: - american 8 & 11 year olds – attributed behaviour to personal/situational causes in the same ratio. - american adults – attributed behaviours to personal factors more often than situational. - indian 11 year olds & adults – more situational than personal attributions.  FAE diminished in collectivist societies; less focus on individual behaviour, more on relationships/roles in society. Self-Serving Bias: - tendency to perceive yourself favourably. - above-average effect – dispositional causes for your successes; situational causes for your errors. o ex. card game – if you win: attribute it to personal strategy; if you lose: attribute it to poor dealing. - positive events – “actors” select dispositional explanations; observers select situational explanations. - negative events – “actors” select situational explanations; observers select dispositional explanations. - we are biased in believing we are above average on things that matter to us. Cognitive Heuristics: - accelerate the processing of social situations; helps to make quick decisions about information from the environment. - representativeness heuristic – how one’s behaviour fits with a certain prototype. - probability is often discounted in favour of a representative prototype. - availability heuristic – considers the experiences most readily available in memory. - availability of flaws in memory influences our perception of an experience. Relationships: - attractiveness – has a positive impression on you; increases your desire to share their company. - four factors: proximity, familiarity, physical attractiveness, others’ opinions. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary Proximity: - functional distance – how often do individuals get to interact? - more likely to become attracted to those you live/work closely with. anticipated interaction  higher ratings. - physical proximity – physically close to someone. - functional proximity – interacting with someone. Familiarity: - more positive towards familiar than unfamiliar stimuli. - mere exposure effect – tendency to be more positive toward things that are familiar, even if only seen a few times in the past. - more familiar faces = more attractive; mirror image. - high frequency  more positive. Physical Attractiveness: - how physically attractive he/she is. - used as an indicator of personal characteristics; ex. attractive children are rated more intelligent than unattractive children. Others’ Opinions: - we are attracted to those who like us back, especially when we have low self-esteem. - also influenced by how a person has previously thought of you. TEXTBOOK - Harlow – effect of isolation on monkeys. o suffered emotional disturbances; rarely moved; those who eventually became mothers abused their infants. Fundamental Attribution Error: - situational attribution – depends on the situation; ex. being late for a meeting because you did not want to be rude and leave a conversation. - dispositional attribution – depends on the traits of the person; ex. being late for a meeting because you are typically disorganized. - fundamental attribution error – over-estimating dispositional attributes, and under-estimating situational attributes. - more likely to make the FAE for others than for ourselves. Self-Serving Bias: - we are biased to a good evaluation of ourselves. - successes = true abilities (dispositional attribution); failures = fluke of circumstances (situational attribution). Actor-Observer Effect: - making/keeping assumptions based on what other people do, even if they no control over their position. Cognitive Heuristics: Representative Heuristics: - judging an outcome to occur if it is similar to the population from which it was selected. - allows us to disregard the more ideal option in favour of our own impressions of something. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - those with more knowledge in a certain field were still just as likely to let the representativeness heuristic influence their impressions. Availability Heuristics: - probability estimates are affected by how easy it is to think of examples. - slovic et al. – asked participants if two different events were more likely to result in death. o stroke vs. accidents – people voted accidents to be more likely, even though the risk of stroke is much higher.  accidents – more coverage on media; most readily available to an individual. The False Consensus Effect: - your thoughts are similar to others; makes us overestimate how much others agree with us. - believe that more people share our views than they do, even if it is a “minor” belief. Stereotypes: - illusory correlation – occurs when individuals believe that two variables are related, even if there is no relationship. Implicit Association Test (IAT): - categorization task where individuals categorize stimuli into four different categories using two response keys; two categories require one response key, in two different instances. o participant views two categories requiring the response as related: IAT is fast and accurate. o two categories require different responses – IAT performance is slow with more errors. - greenwald et al. – were faster at categorizing words in the compatible pairing (positive – white, negative – black), than in the incompatible pairing (positive – black, negative – white). LECTURE - stereotypes (cognition) – beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of particular groups. - prejudice (affect) – a negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members. - discrimination (behaviour) – negative behaviour towards members of a particular group based on their membership in that group. - type I thinking – allows for appropriate behaviour in various scenarios. - type II thinking (slow, thoughtful) better for making impressions. - in-group – positive attitudes; heterogeneity. - out-group – negatives attitudes; homogeneity. - representativeness – what prototype does this person fit? - availability – what recent or salient exemplar does this person match? - implicit processes (automatic)– occur outside of your awareness, without conscious control. o implicit association task – reveals natural associations in the participants. o implicit association toward race = increased amygdala activity. - explicit processes (controlled) – occur with conscious direction and deliberate thought. - William’s Syndrome – amygdala less reactive to social fear associated with reduced racial, but not gender bias. Solution to Unconscious Bias: Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary CHAPTER 10 – INFLUENCE OF OTHERS MODULE 1 - common sense does not always equal research findings. Presence of Others: - Norman Triplett – first formal study of social psychology. - observed that cyclists raced faster when competing against each other in a group vs. against a clock. - co-actor – another individual performing the same task. - audience – a group of people watching an individual perform a task. - social facilitation – increased performance that occurs in the presence of co-actors or an audience. Zajonc’s (zye-ontz) Resolution: - presence of others increases arousal to improve performance on well-practiced tasks. - simple tasks which you have mastered, with plentiful practice – performance is enhanced. - complex tasks that are foreign to you, with little practice – performance is hindered. Social Learning Theory: - popularized by Albert Bandura; suggests that we learn appropriate behaviours by modeling and imitating the behaviour of others. - different from basic conditioning because you do not require explicit reinforcement to imitate said behaviours. Bobo Doll Experiment: - children were asked to play with toys, with an adult in the room modelling passive or aggressive behaviour towards a Bobo Doll. - those who viewed an aggressive play model were more likely to subsequently display aggressive behaviour to the doll, with no explicit reinforcement. - children mimic observed behaviours, even when afflicting harm to other people. Conformity: Autokinetic Effect Experiment: - conducted by Muzafer Sherif; had a perceptual illusion where one had to track where a dot moved. - trick is: did not actually move; eyes mistake movement of the image on your retina as actual motion of the light. - if in a group over several days: results converged with what the other group members thought, even if the “starting points” differed; example of norm formation. - norm formation – leads to convergence in behaviour, even in the presence of outliers. o ex. laugh tracks in shows – hearing the laughter may convince you that the dialogue is funnier than it is. Asch’s Stimuli: - individuals had to identify which of the 3 comparison lines matched the standard line given. - one subject, surrounded by six other confederates; they answer before the subject does. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - 75% of subjects conformed to an incorrect answer for at least one trial; 37% of the average responses conformed to an incorrect answer. - subjects doubt their own perceptions when it conflicts with that of others.  normative function – the role of others in setting standards for our conduct based on a fear of rejection.  comparative function – the role of others in providing information about an ambiguous situation. Group Dynamics: - James Stoner – risky shift effect. o groups made riskier decisions than individuals before the group discussion part of the experiment. o sometimes it is opposite, where the individual makes “risker” decisions than the group. - group polarization – group decision-making strengthens the original inclinations of the individual group members; leads to more extreme views. - group consensus is pushed to the extreme of the individual members’ decisions. - groupthink – a group decision-making environment that occurs when group cohesiveness becomes so strong, it overrides realistic appraisals of reality and alternative opinions. o coined by Irving Janis; “mob mentality”; groups overestimate their might and right. o groups think they are unquestionably right and all other groups are wrong. o rationalized group decisions; high pressure to conform. Preventing Groupthink: - be impartial – group leader should remain neutral. - critical evaluation – allow group members to disagree; playing “devil’s advocate”. - subdivide the group – make separate decisions, then come together to discuss the differences between them. - give a second chance – in order to reveal any further doubts/issues. The Bystander Effect: - Kitty Genovese – was murdered in NYC; ~30 witnesses that did nothing to help her out. - two decisions to action: o one must decide whether the situation is an emergency. o if it is an emergency, should I be the one to respond? - more people present, the less likely a single person takes to realize an emergency. - Latane and Darley – released smoke into a room of individuals to see how long it would take for them to report it. o took longer for individuals in groups to report it than solely individuals. - collective ignorance – when everyone in a group see nobody responding in a situation, they conclude that the situation is not an emergency; basing their decision on the behaviour of others around them. - to test the 2nd decision – subject was placed in a room, talking over an intercom. o planted individual started saying that they were having seizures. o most rapid responses came from subjects that thought that no one else was available to take action. o as the number of participants increased, the probability for taking action decreased. - diffusion of responsibility – in deciding whether we have to act, we determine that someone else in the group is more qualified. - to avoid bystander effect: be direct about asking for help. - seeing someone else helping increases the probability that you will help in a later situation; helpful behaviour is contagious. - social loafing – individuals seem to be less motivated when working in a group than when working alone; special case of diffusion of responsibility. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - Ingham – had blindfolded subjects play tug of war “with other people” (even though they played alone); found that subjects pulled 18% less when they thought they were pulling in a group vs. alone. - Latane, Williams, & Harkins – blindfolded subjects put on headphones and were told to clap/shout as loud as they could. o subjects made less noise as group size increased; subjects reported that they did not change their sound. - responsibility is diffused for both emergency situations and collective efforts. MODULE 2 Obedience: Milgram’s Experiment: - teachers administered “electrical shocks” to a Learner whenever they got a set of words wrong. o learner was an actor, and shock was not actually administered; however, the teacher did not know that. - more answers the learner responds incorrectly to, the more intense the shock is. - teacher is told to continue giving shocks, even when the learner is clearly “in pain”. - 65% of subjects continued to the end of the experiment. - people display strong obedience, even to minimally powerful figures of authority. - you are not always an accurate judge of how you would behave in a given situation. - prestige of an institution influences the level of obedience in subjects. - proximity between teacher and learner influences obedience levels in subjects. o closer to learner = less obedient. - proximity to the experimenter influences the teacher’s obedience to shock learners. o closer to experimenter = more obedient Cognitive Dissonance: Festinger & Carlsmith: - told participants that an experiment will be exciting; turns out it was not, but then they asked the participants to tell the next one that it WAS exciting. o paid the person $1 or $20. o those who were paid less had greater dissonance between attitude and behaviour. o those who were paid more told themselves that the money was the motivation for their behaviour. - subjects paid $20 in the Festinger & Carlsmith study had an easier time telling the next subject how fun the experiment was compared to those paid $1. - dissonance – inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour that produces an uncomfortable feeling. o must be insufficient justification for a behaviour in conflict with the attitude. - to reduce dissonance: adjust your behaviour or your attitude. - attitudes are less likely to change when external motivations over-justify the behaviour. Stanford Prison Experiment: - participants were either set up as guards or prisoners; the prisoners were mock arrested, and sent to a mock prison. - study only lasted 6 days out of 2 weeks due to the sadistic behaviour of the guards, and the emotional trauma of the prisoners rapidly increasing. - deindividualization – in a group situation, the loss of a sense of personal responsibility and restraint; ex. covering one’s face makes it easier to perform anti-normative behaviours. Persuasion: - most persuasive communicators have high credibility, are attractive, and are relatable to their audience. - speech style influences perceived trustworthiness; a straightforward and concise speech style can make you sound more persuasive. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary Goethals & Nelson: - similarity – more persuasive for personal lifestyle choices. - credibility – more persuasive for objective fact. - one-sided argument – most effective with an audience that initially agrees with your standpoint. - two-sided argument – most effective with an audience that initially disagrees with your standpoint. o two-sided = acknowledging both your and the opposing opinions, and then presenting arguments as to why your position is better. - central appeal – well reasoned, factual, two-sided arguments; effective for academic audiences. - peripheral appeal – well presented, easy to understand messages; effective for non-academic audiences. Techniques in Persuasion: - foot in the door effect – a gradual escalation of demands increases obedience. o asking for a small request made subjects agree to a larger, typically denied request. o every request is considered in relation to the previous request, rather than the first. - low ball technique – an escalation of the terms of an agreement after someone has already agreed to comply. o agreeing to an experiment makes subjects more likely to attend them. TEXTBOOK Self-Perception Theory: - we do not necessarily have a special insight into ourselves. - Strack, Martin, & Stepper – had subjects hold a pen in-between their teeth (smile), or their lips (frown). o those who had the pen in-between their teeth found that a cartoon was more amusing. Cognitive Dissonance: - if an obvious reason for doing something does not present itself, we will make up a justification for it. Persuasion: Communicator: - source of persuasion; trustworthiness can trump expertise in some cases. - as reputation dissipates, so does communicator effectiveness. Message: - one sided argument – effective when the audience initially agrees; preaching to the choir. - two sided argument – more effective when the audience initially disagrees. - messages are usually more effective when associated with a good feeling. - little fear = no impact; too much fear = doubt in the credibility of the communicator Audience: - academic – well-reasoned, factual, 2-sided argument. - non-academic – well-presented, easy-to-understand argument. Techniques in Persuasion: - foot in the door – getting your target to agree to something up front; committed = more likely to follow through. - low ball – getting your target to agree to something small, then later escalating the terms. - door in the face – asking for something completely unreasonable, then greatly scaling back your request. - using “buzzwords” to label a product as trending. - advertising luxury products towards our desire of prestige. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary Obedience: - humans have a tendency towards obedience to authority. - decreases with reduced prestige and perceived experimenter power. Conformity: - norm function – founded by Sherif; having your own opinion be swayed by that of others in a group. - conform – adjust our behaviour/thinking to coincide with a group standard. - normative social influences – we want to be approved by the people we associate with. - informational social influences – open to learning/gaining information from a group. - conformity levels decrease with reduced group size, and when dissention occurs within a group. The Influence of Groups: - norms depend on culture, or on the social roles one hold. Roles: - individuals internalize roles given to them, and take on their respective attitudes. Crowds: - deindividualization – losing sight of one’s individuality, and acting as part of a crowd. - large groups provide a sense of anonymity; you may be more inclined to partake in malicious behaviours if you feel as though no one is watching you. Acting in a Group: - Zajonc – presence of other people increase arousal. o simple task arousal = improved performance; complex task arousal = decreased performance. Social Loafing: - we expend less effort when we believe our contribution will be averaged among others. - individuals do less work in groups than by themselves. Group Dynamics: - group polarization – groups tend to strengthen original inclinations. Group Conflict: - Robber’s cave study findings: o within a group, children settled into their roles, and became a cohesive unit. o when another group was introduced: there was hostility between the two due to the emergence of competition. o when working together towards a common goal: the hostility disappeared. Groupthink: - occurs when: o group is highly cohesive, and shut off from non-group members. o leader is directive and subordinates are not encouraged to challenge the leadership. o when the group is under pressure to make a decision. Helping Others: - altruism – unselfish regard for the welfare of others; willingness to risk your life to help others. - norm of reciprocity – we are expected to reciprocate when someone else treats us well; returning the favour. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|48331774 PSYCH 1X03 – Exam Summary - norm of social responsibility – as a member of society, we are expected to contribute to its welfare in a responsible way. - empathy-altruism hypothesis – altruism results from empathy. - negative state relief model – we help because we would feel distressed and guilty if we didn’t. Bystander Effects: - more people = less individual responsibility, more anonymity, loss of individual identity. - taking action in front of a group makes one self-conscious, so they wait for someone else to do it. - we wait for the expert to step in. - people consider a cost-benefit ratio. - Eagle & Crowley – female bystanders are equally as likely to help male/female individuals; male bystanders are more likely to help female individuals. - we are more willing to help those who are in need due to problems beyond their control than those whose need arose from their own doing. Zimbardo & The Heroic Imagination Project: - teaching individuals the various mechanisms surrounding bystander effects will prevent them from making those mistakes in emergency situations. - heroes – socially centered (interact in a positive way with others on a daily basis). - key of this project: to get people to think of themselves as capable of being a hero. Harming Others: - aggression – behaviour that is intended to harm someone else; is not socially justifiable. Learning to be Aggressive: - witnesses violence de-sensitizes us to it. Aggression and Gender: - relational aggression – personal interactions; done to make others dislike someone. - hostile aggression – directly confrontational; ex. hitting someone. - males tend to display hostile aggression, while women show relational aggression. LECTURE: - sunk cost trap – unrecoverable investments of resources leading to further investment; ex. staying in a terrible movie because you paid for it; don’t want to lose out. - Ben Franklin effect – ask a person who has negative feelings toward you for a favour. - top-down processing cannot be switched off. Downloaded by Janaki ([email protected])