Research Design PDF

# Research Design ## What is a Research Design? A research design is a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study. It is a guide for making something. It is a plan or something conceptualized by the mind. If you are working on a research, you need to finalize your mind on: 1. **P...

# Research Design ## What is a Research Design? A research design is a blueprint or a skeletal framework of your research study. It is a guide for making something. It is a plan or something conceptualized by the mind. If you are working on a research, you need to finalize your mind on: 1. **Purpose of the research** 2. **Philosophical basis** 3. **Type of data** 4. **Methods or technique in collecting and analyzing data** ## Qualitative Research Qualitative research explores complex phenomena through rich, descriptive data. ### Types of Qualitative Research * **Phenomenology** | Explores lived experiences. * Example: A study on how cancer patients cope with their diagnosis. * **Ethnography** | Studies cultures and communities. * Example: Observing the daily routines of a remote indigenous tribe. * **Case Study** | In-depth exploration of a single subject. * Example: Analyzing the operations of a high-performing school. * **Grounded Theory** | Develops theories from data. * Example: Creating a model on how small businesses adapt to economic crises. * **Narrative Research** | Focuses on personal stories. * Example: Documenting the journey of a refugee resettling in a new country. ## Terms in Research Studies * **Population** | The cluster of people, events, things, or other phenomena that you are interested in. * **Sample** |A subset of your population. It is the group (be it people, events, etc.) from which you actually collect data * **Sampling** | The process or technique of choosing a sample from a population to participate in the study. ## Rules of Thumb for Qualitative Research ### Rule of Thumb Based on Research Approach | **Research Approach** | **Rule of Thumb** | | :-------------------------------------------- | :----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Biography/ Case Study | Select one case or one person. | | Phenomenology | Assess 10 people. If you reach saturation prior to assessing ten people you may use fewer. | | Grounded theory/ ethnography/ action research | Assess 20-30 people, which typically is enough to reach saturation. | ### Rule of Thumb Based on Data Collection Method | **Data Collection Method** | **Rule of Thumb** | | :------------------------------------ | :---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Interviewing key informants | Interview approximately five people. | | In-depth interviews | Interview approximately 30 people. | | Focus Groups | Create groups that average 5-10 people each. In addition, consider the number of focus groups you need based on -groupings represented in the research question. That is, when studying males and females of three different age groupings, plan for six focus groups, giving you one for each gender and three age groups for each gender. | | Ethnographic Surveys | Select a large and representative sample (purposeful or random based on purpose) with numbers similar to those in a quantitative study. | ## Coding Coding is done repeatedly until major patterns arise. You can visualize coding by thinking of an essay written on a piece of paper with you cutting the sentences with a scissor and filing them under a folder with a certain classification. ### Types of Coding * **Open Coding** | The first step at coding in which qualitative data are closely examined, compared with one another, and then classified into discrete ideas. 'Unemployment', 'missed payments', and 'educational struggles' are examples of open coding. * **Axial Coding** | This is done by regrouping the results of open coding and finding a core concept among the codes. For example, codes such as TV network closure', Tourism industry, and 'Factories' can be classified under the axial code of unemployment by company closure. * **Selective Coding** | This is done to identify the single concept to which all other codes relate to. Once that you have reviewed all of the data and identified all of the concepts, you will see a central concept that ties it all. For example, if most of the responses point out that their families' finances were severely impacted due to the unemployment of the breadwinner or the provider of the household, we can point out unemployment as the selective code. ## Concept Mapping A concept map is a graphical depiction of relationships of concepts or codes generated during the coding steps. This makes it simpler for you to explain, and easier for the reader to comprehend. A concept map may take any form as you wish, with codes written inside shapes and connected to other codes with lines or arrows. ## Data Gathering Instruments The plan on what instrument to use, definitely vary to the objectives of the research study. The types of design are factors to decide what data gathering instrument is to be used. ### Data Gathering Instruments to Use According to Research Design | **Research Designs** | **Qualitative Research Instruments** | | :-------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Case studies | * Surveys * Interviews * Documentation review * Artifact collection * Observation | | Ethnography | * Interviews * Survey and analysis | | Phenomenology | * Interviews * Participant observation * Reflective diaries and researcher’s own introspective accounts | | Grounded theory | * Interviewing participants with open-ended questions * Participant Observation (fieldwork) * Focus groups * Study of Artifacts and Texts | ## What is Research Data? Research Data refers to the kinds of information researchers obtain from the subjects of their research. ### Examples of Data Formats * **Documents** (text, MS Word), spreadsheets, lab notebooks, field notebooks, diaries, questionnaires, transcripts, surveys, codebooks, experimental data * **Test responses**, artifacts, specimens, physical samples, models, algorithms, scripts, content analysis, focus group recordings, interview notes ### Types of Data * **Observational Data** | Data captured through observation of a behavior or activity. It is collected using methods such as human observation, open-ended surveys, or the use of an instrument or sensor to monitor and record information. * **Experimental Data** | Data collected through active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create difference when a variable is altered. * **Simulation Data** | Data generated by imitating the operation of a real-world process or system over time. * **Derived or Compiled Data** | Involves using existing data points, often from different data sources, to create new data through some sort of transformation, such as an arithmetic formula or aggregation. ## Characteristics of Conclusions 1. The conclusion presents the interpretation and generalization of the study based on its findings. 2. It appropriately answers the research questions and problems raised at the beginning of the investigation. 3. It must point out what was factually learned from the study. 4. It must be formulated concisely. ## Guidelines in Writing Recommendations 1. **It must be brief** | Be specific about your recommendations and write only what is necessary. 2. **It must be clear** | While you do not have to include every step to implement your suggestion, be clear about what your suggestions are. 3. **It must be precise** | Use the actual findings of your study as reasons for your recommendations. 4. **It must be written by the beneficiaries' order of priority** | List your beneficiaries and your recommendations to them in order from those who would benefit the most, to those who would benefit the least. 5. **It must be logical** | The recommendations must be reasonably based on the conclusions, and not from researcher conjecture. 6. **It must contain no new conclusions, discoveries, assumptions, or revelations** | No further conclusions or assumptions from the author must be placed in the recommendations. ## Types of Observation & Tools ### Types of Observation * **Participant Observation** | Researcher actively participates. * **Non-Participant Observation** | Researcher observes from a distance. * **Overt Observation** | Participants know they're being observed. * **Covert Observation** | Participants are unaware. ### Observation Tools and Examples * **Field Notes** | Writing detailed descriptions of behaviors and conversations during a community event. * **Audio/Video Recordings** | Recording a therapy session to analyze communication patterns. * **Checklists** | Monitoring classroom participation using a list of expected behaviors. * **Observation Grids** | Using a matrix to categorize different interactions during a team meeting. ## Permission Letter vs Approval Letter * **Permission Letter** | A request to access specific data, locations, or participants. * **Approval Letter** | A confirmation from an ethics board or authority to proceed with research. ## Ethical Consideration in Data Gathering Ethical research prioritizes the well-being of participants. ### Examples of Ethical Practices * **Informed Consent** | Providing participants with a form explaining the study and asking them to sign before participation. * **Confidentiality** | Using pseudonyms instead of real names in a published study. * **Voluntary Participation** | Allowing a student to drop out of a focus group without pressure. * **Avoidance of Harm** | Ensuring questions in an interview do not cause emotional distress. * **Transparency** | Explaining to participants that the research will be used for academic purposes only. ## Types of Validity * **Construct Validity** | Developing a survey to measure "motivation" by including items about goals, effort, and persistence. * **Internal Validity** | Controlling for external variables when testing the effect of a new teaching method on student performance. * **External Validity** | Generalizing findings from a study on urban schools to other city schools. * **Content Validity** | Ensuring a reading comprehension test includes questions from all chapters of a book. * **Criterion Validity** | Comparing scores from a new language proficiency test to established international tests like IELTS.