Workplace Emotions and Attitudes PDF

Workplace Emotions and Attitudes “It’s not only how people think but also how they feel” Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy....

Workplace Emotions and Attitudes “It’s not only how people think but also how they feel” Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy. Industrial-Organizational Psychologist/HR Consultant [email protected] 1 Positive Emotions at Mott MacDonald To attract and keep talented employees, companies are finding creative ways to generate positive emotions in the workplace. Employees at Mott MacDonald have plenty of fun. For example, the Abu Dhabi oil and gas team has an annual desert safari, complete with camel rides (shown in photo) Those who experience more positive emotions tend to have more favorable attitudes toward their jobs and organizations. 2 1  What is AFFECT? The range of feelings in the forms of emotions and moods that people experience in their life context. 3 4 2  EMOTIONS defined ▪ Strong positive or negative feelings directed toward someone or something; tend to be short-term ▪ Most emotions occur without our awareness ▪ Moods are lower intensity emotions without any specific target source; may persist for some time 5 Causes of Emotions: ▪ AFFECT INTENSITY: Individual differences in the strength with which individuals experience their emotions. Affectively intense people experience both positive and negative emotions more deeply: when they’re sad, they’re really sad, and when they’re happy, they’re really happy. ▪ TIME OF DAY: Negative affect is lowest early in the morning and highest late in the evening. Positive affect tend to peak in the late morning (10 a.m.–noon) and then remain at that level until early evening (around 7 p.m.) ▪ DAY OF THE WEEK: Monday is the highest negative-affect day across most cultures. For Germans and Chinese, positive affect is highest from Friday to Sunday and lowest on Monday. In Japan positive affect is higher on Monday than on either Friday or Saturday. ▪ WEATHER: A fairly large and detailed body of evidence suggests weather has little effect on mood, at least for most people (i.e., illusory correlation) 6 3  Other Causes of Emotions: ▪ Age: Negative emotions occur less as people get older ▪ Sex: Women experience emotions more intensely, tend to “hold onto” emotions longer than men, and reported more sadness and fear. Men reported more anger. ▪ Sleep: Poor or reduced sleep also makes it difficult to control emotions. Even one bad night’s sleep makes us more angry and risk-prone ▪ Exercise enhances people’s positive moods, especially for those who are depressed ▪ Social Activities: Activities that are physical (skiing or hiking with friends), informal (going to a party), or epicurean (eating with others) are more strongly associated with increases in positive mood than events that are formal (attending a meeting) or sedentary (watching TV with friends) 7 Foundations of Emotions and Moods ▪ Positive Affectivity Tendency to be perceptually positive; generally extroverted—outgoing, talkative, sociable, and assertive Positivity Offset: The tendency of most individuals to experience a mildly positive mood at zero input (when nothing in particular is going on) ▪ Negative Affectivity Tendency to experience negative moods in a wide range of settings and under many different conditions 8 4 9 Foundations of Emotions and Moods ▪ Self-conscious Emotions Emotions that arise from internal sources that help individuals regulate their relationships with others Examples: shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride ▪ Social Emotions Emotions that are stimulated by external sources Examples: pity, envy, and jealousy 10 5  Types of Emotions ❑ EVALUATION: good or bad, helpful or harmful, to be approached or to be avoided ❑ ACTIVATION: how much they demand our attention and motivate us to act. 11 Moral Emotions Emotions that have moral implications because of our instant judgment of the situation that evokes them Examples: sympathy for the suffering of others, guilt about our own immoral behavior, anger about injustice done to others, contempt for those who behave unethically, and moral disgust—the disgust we feel about violations of moral norms 12 6  Emotion and Mood Contagion ▪ Emotion and Mood Contagion: The spillover effects of one’s emotions and mood to others ▪ Evidence shows that positive and negative emotions are contagious. In one study, team members were found to share good and bad moods within two hours of being together; bad moods, interestingly, travelled person-to-person faster than good moods. ▪ Emotion and mood contagion is an important leadership issue that should be managed with care because everyone watches the boss 13 ATTITUDE defined ▪ Predisposition to respond in a positive or negative way to someone or something in one’s environment ▪ “Liking” or “disliking” someone or something is an expression of attitude ▪ Attitudes represent the cluster of beliefs, assessed feelings, and behavioral intentions toward a person, object, or event (called attitude object) 14 7  Three Components 15 Attitudes versus Emotions Attitudes Emotions Judgments about an Experiences related to an attitude object attitude object Based on innate and Based mainly on learned responses to rational logic environment Usually stable for days Usually experienced for or longer seconds or less 16 8  Generating Positive Emotions at Work ▪ The emotions-attitudes- behavior model illustrates that attitudes are shaped by ongoing emotional experiences. ▪ Thus, successful companies actively create more positive than negative emotional episodes. 17 EMOTIONAL LABOR defined Effort, planning and control needed to express organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions. Emotional labor is higher when job requires: ▪ frequent and long duration display of emotions ▪ displaying a variety of emotions ▪ displaying more intense emotions 18 18 9  Employees of Apple’s store in Manhattan, New York, greet customers with enthusiasm and excitement as they exit the store after buying an iPhone 6 on its first day of sales. Employees’ smiles and high fives are expressions of emotional labor that Apple requires and considers appropriate for their jobs. Source: Adrees Latif/Reuters/Landov 19 Emotional Dissonance Refers to the inconsistencies between the emotions people feel and the emotions they project. Bottled-up feelings of frustration, anger, and resentment can lead to emotional exhaustion. Long-term emotional dissonance is a predictor for job burnout, declines in job performance, and lower job satisfaction 20 10  Examples of Careers with High Emotional Labor 1. BILL COLLECTORS: Socialized to show irritation to debtors 2. CASINO WAITRESSES: Must work in a sexualized and a generous tipping system 3. FASTFOOD EMPLOYEES: Are expected to greet customers with a smile and friendly attitude independent of their own mood or temperament at the time 4. PHYSICIANS: May rely on surface acting when sincere empathy for patients is impossible 5. POLICE: Must have a commanding presence at times, while having the ability to actively listen and talk to citizens at other times 21 Emotional Labor Challenges Difficult to display expected emotions accurately, and to hide true emotions. More stressful when a person copes with it with surface acting (“faking”)— hiding true feelings while displaying very different ones Deep acting—modifying one’s feelings to better fit the situation (such as empathizing with an irate customer) can be less stressful to the person 22 11  There are 43 muscles in the face, most of which are controlled by the seventh cranial nerve (also known as the facial nerve). This nerve exits the cerebral cortex and emerges from your skull just in front of your ears. It then splits into five primary branches: temporal, zygomatic, buccal, mandibular and cervical. These branches reach different areas of the face and enervate muscles that allow the face to twist and contort into a variety of expressions. 23 WORKPLACE ATTITUDES 24 12  ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT ❑ The degree to which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. Three Components: 1. An acceptance of the organization’s goals; 2. A willingness to work hard for the organization 3. The desire to stay with the organization 25 Dimensions of Organizational Commitment Benefits accrued Continuance commitment Jobs available Continuance Commitment ▪ Refers to employees' assessment of whether the costs of leaving the organization are greater than the costs of staying ▪ Employees who perceive that the costs of leaving the organization are greater than the costs of staying remain because they need to 26 13  Dimensions of Organizational Commitment Personal values Normative commitment Felt obligations Normative Commitment ▪ Refers to employee's feelings of obligation to the organization ▪ Employees with high levels of normative commitment stay with the organization because they feel they ought to 27 Dimensions of Organizational Commitment Job conditions Affective commitment Met expectations Affective Commitment ▪ Refers to employee's emotional attachment, identification with, and involvement in the organization ▪ Employees with a strong affective commitment stay with the organization because they want to 28 14  Measuring Organizational Commitment ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT SCALE: A self-scoring questionnaire. Responses to each of the 6 items are rated using a 5-point Likert scale with anchors labeled: 0 = strongly disagree, 1 = disagree, 2 = neither agree nor disagree, 3 = agree, 4 strongly agree Affective Commitment I would be very happy to spend the rest of my career with this organization I really feel as if this organization’s problems are my own Continuance Commitment Right now, staying with my organization is a matter of necessity as much as desire It would be very hard for me to leave my organization right now, even if I wanted to Normative Commitment I do not feel any obligation to remain with my current employer Even if it were to my advantage, I do not feel it would be right to leave my organization now 29 Place a check under the face that expresses how you feel about your college life in general. 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 15  JOB SATISFACTION ❑ The degree to which an individual feels positive or negative about a job overall as well as various aspects of them. Is the extent to which people like (or dislike) their jobs One of the most studied variables in organizational behavior Argued as the cause of important employee and organizational outcomes ranging from job performance to health and longevity 31 THAT, as compared to employees who are not satisfied or committed, satisfied and committed employees: ▪ Are more likely to attend work (Hackett, 1989) ▪ Stay with the organization (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000) ▪ Arrive at work on time (Koslowsky, Sagie, Krausz, & Singer, 1997) ▪ Perform well (Judge, Thoresen, Bono, & Patton, 2001) ▪ Engage in organizational citizenship behaviors (LePine, Erez, & Johnson, 2002) ▪ Do not behave in counterproductive ways (Dalal, 2005) ▪ Engage in ethical behavior (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Treviño, 2010) 32 16  Approaches to the Study of Job Satisfaction GLOBAL APPROACH Treats job satisfaction as a single overall feeling towards the job “All things considered, how satisfied are you with your job?” 33 Approaches to the Study of Job Satisfaction FACET APPROACH Focuses on different aspects of the job, such as rewards (pay or fringe benefits), other people on the job (supervisors or co- workers), job conditions, and the nature of the work itself 34 17  Five Facets of Job Satisfaction One of the most popular measures of Job Satisfaction is the Job Descriptive Index (JDI; Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). It measures five facets: 1. The work itself—responsibility, interest, and growth. 2. Quality of Supervision—technical help and social support 3. Relationship with co-workers—social harmony and respect 4. Promotion opportunities—chances for further advancement 5. Pay—adequacy of pay and perceived equity vis-à-vis others 35 Sample Items from JOB DESCRIPTIVE INDEX 36 18  Research Findings on Job Satisfaction ▪ Job satisfaction leads to better job performance when rewarded! ▪ The fairness with which pay is distributed (or, equity) is more important determinant of pay satisfaction than the actual level of pay ▪ Many studies have shown that older workers are more satisfied with their jobs than younger workers (lowest level at around 26 to 31) ▪ Identical twins have been found to have similar levels of job satisfaction despite being reared apart and despite working at dissimilar jobs. Inherited personality traits such as negative affectivity are related to our tendency to be satisfied with jobs (Ilies & Judge, 2003) ▪ Dissatisfied employees reported more physical symptoms, such as sleep problems and upset stomach (Begley & Czajka, 1993; O’Driscoll & Beehr, 1994) 37 EVLN: Responses to Job Dissatisfaction Leaving the situation Exit Quitting, transferring Changing the situation Voice Problem solving, complaining Patiently waiting for the Loyalty situation to improve Reducing work effort/quality Neglect Increasing absenteeism 38 19  Job Satisfaction and OCBs Job satisfaction is also linked with organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). These are discretionary behaviors that represent a willingness to “go beyond the call of duty” or “go the extra mile” in one’s work. A good organizational citizen: 1. Interpersonal OCBs—Does things that although not required of them help others (i.e., altruism) 2. Organizational OCBs—Advance the performance of the organization as a whole (e.g., doing what needs to be done, following rules, coming to work on time, and not wasting time) 39 Job Satisfaction and CWBs Job dissatisfaction is often associated with a variety of counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs), behaviours intended to harm the organization and other people at work, such as coworkers, supervisors and customers. ▪ Personal Aggression—Sexual harassment, verbal abuse, physical abuse, intimidation, humiliation ▪ Production Deviance—wasting resources, avoiding work, disrupting workflow, making deliberate work errors ▪ Political Deviance—spreading harmful rumors, gossiping, using bad language, lacking civility in relationships ▪ Property Deviance—destroying or sabotaging facilities and equipment, stealing money and other resources 40 20 41 Job Satisfaction and Customers Job satisfaction increases customer satisfaction and profitability because: 1. Job satisfaction affects mood, leading to positive behaviors toward customers 2. Job satisfaction reduces employee turnover, resulting in more consistent and familiar service 42 21  “Take care of your employees and they will take care of your business. It’s as simple as that.” Richard Branson McShane/Von Glinow OB 5e 43 © 2010 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved 43 A Graphic Scale of Organizational Identification. The chart is intended to assess your relationship with the organization (or unit, company, branch, department, team) you belong to. Below you will find seven rectangles. In each rectangle there are two circles. One represents you and the other one the unit you belong to. In each rectangle the circles are overlapping differently. In the first rectangle (number 1), they are totally separate and represent a situation in which you do not identify at all with your unit. In the last rectangle (number 7), the circles are totally overlapping and represent a situation in which you totally identify with the unit. Choose out of the seven rectangles the one that most highly represents the extent to which you identify with your unit. 44 22 45 Organizational Identification (OID) The process whereby individuals derive a feeling of pride and esteem from their association with an organization. Individuals may also take pains to distance themselves from the organization for which they work—this would be called organizational disidentification. Social identity theory consists of three propositions (van Dick, 2004): 1. People value and seek self-esteem 2. Group memberships play a role in a person’s self-concept 3. Individuals seek to maintain a positive social identity by making favorable distinctions between their social in-group and other out-groups 46 23  Organizational Identification (OID) Kreiner and Ashforth (2004) have suggested four variations of identification: 1. Identification. Individuals define themselves in terms of the attributes of the organization. 2. Disidentification. Individuals define themselves as not having the attributes of the organization. 3. Ambivalent identification. Individuals identify with some attributes of the organization but reject other aspects. 4. Neutral identification. Individuals remain aggressively neutral, neither identifying nor disidentifying with the attributes of an organization (e.g., “I don’t take sides, I just do my job”). 47 Employee Engagement An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does. ▪ Overlaps positively with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement. ▪ The opposite of psychological burnout (Schaufeli, Taris, & Van Rhenen, 2008) ▪ Surveys indicate that few employees—between 17 percent and 29 percent—are highly engaged by their work (Robbins & Judge, 2017) 48 24  1. Aamodt, M. G. (2016). Industrial and organizational psychology: An applied approach (8th ed.). CA: Cengage Learning 2. Dessler, G. (2013). Human resource management (13th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 3. McShane, S.L., & Von Glinow, M.A. (2010). Organizational behavior: Emerging knowledge and practice for the real world (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4. Spector, P.E. (2008). Industrial and organizational behavior: Research and practice (5th ed.). NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 49 25  11/22/2024 Occupational Stress Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy. Industrial-Organizational Psychologist/HR Consultant [email protected] 1 STRESS defined ❑ An adaptive response to a situation that is perceived as challenging or threatening to the person’s well-being. A state of tension experienced by individuals facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities. 2 2 1  11/22/2024 General Adaptation Syndrome Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Alarm Reaction Resistance Exhaustion Normal Level of Resistance ABILITY TO COPE 3 Examples of Job Strains from each of the Three Categories of Job Strains Job Strain Examples of Specific Outcomes Psychological Anger reactions Anxiety Frustration Job dissatisfaction Physical reactions Physical symptoms Dizziness Headache Heart pounding Stomach distress Illness Cancer Heart disease Behavioral Accidents reactions Smoking Substance use Turnover 4 2  11/22/2024 Sources of Stress: WORK STRESSORS List of common work stressors include the following: o Task Demands—being asked to do too much or being asked to do too little (quantitative workload) or being asked to do very difficult work relative to one’s capabilities (qualitative workload) o Role Ambiguities—the extent to which employees are uncertain about what their job functions and responsibilities are o Role Conflicts—arises when people experience incompatible demands either at work (intrarole) or between work and non- work (extrarole) 5 ❖ Work-family conflict is a form of extrarole conflict in which the demands of work interfere with the family, for example, having to spend time at work leaves insufficient time for home, or the demands of the family interfere with the work, for example, having to take a sick child to the doctor might require a person to be absent from work. ❖ Work-family conflict has been linked to anxiety, depression and physical symptoms, absence and lateness, dissatisfaction with family life, and dissatisfaction with life in general ❖ Two of the most frequently used approaches are flexible work schedules and onsite childcare in the workplace 6 3  11/22/2024 Sources of Stress: WORK STRESSORS o Ethical Dilemmas—being asked to do things that violate personal values or the law o Interpersonal Problems—experiencing bad relationships with coworkers o Career Developments—moving too fast and feeling stretched; moving too slowly and feeling stuck o Physical Setting—noise, heat, lack of privacy, pollution, etc. 7 Sources of Stress: LIFE STRESSORS Forces in the personal lives of people can spillover and affect them at work, such as: o Family Events—e.g., birth of a new child, illness or death of a loved one o Economic Difficulties—e.g., sudden loss of an investment, financial worries, debts, inflation, etc. o Personal Affairs—e.g., starting a new relationship, jealousy, different values, separation or divorce 8 4  11/22/2024 Organizational Politics Self-serving behaviors that employees use to increase the probability of obtaining positive outcomes in organizations ▪ POSITIVE POLITICS: Behaviors designed to influence others with the goal of helping both the organization and the person playing the politics (Holden, 1998; Horan & Seldman, 2012). Includes portraying a professional image, publicizing one’s accomplishments, volunteering, and complimenting others ▪ Negative politics: Manipulative behaviors designed to achieve personal gain at the expense of others and the organization (e.g., backstabbing, withholding important information from others, and spreading rumors) ▪ Results to employee stress, lower performance, lower levels of job satisfaction, and higher amounts of turnover (Chang et al., 2009; Miller et al., 2008) 9 Control ▪ Control is the extent to which employees are able to make decisions about their work. Such decisions involve all aspects of work, including when to work, where to work, how to work, and what tasks to do. ▪ Employees with a high level of control are able to set their own work schedules, choose their own tasks, and decide how to complete those tasks (e.g., professors) ▪ In a low-control job, the work schedule is set, tasks are assigned, and often even have the procedures for accomplishing tasks are specified (e.g., factory worker) ▪ High levels of control are associated with high levels of job satisfaction, organizational commitment, job involvement and performance (Spector, 1986) 10 5  11/22/2024 Machine Pacing ▪ Machine-paced work means that a machine controls when the worker must make a response. The best example is factory work, a conveyor belt controls the speed at which the employee works ▪ Computer technology has introduced machine pacing into non- factory work. Millions of people worldwide sit in computer terminals all day, responding to information that comes on the screen at a pace set by the machine ▪ University of Sweden research has shown that machine paced employees had higher levels of adrenaline. Machine pacing also increased the amount of cortisol because lack of control distressed the employees, and distress is associated with the secretion of cortisol 11 Machine-paced work has been found to be associated with anxiety (Broadbent & Grant, 1981), dissatisfaction, and health symptoms (M.J. Smith, Hurrell, & Murphy, 1989) 12 6  11/22/2024 Job Burnout Burnout is a distressed psychological state than an employee might experience after being on the job for a long period of time ❑ Emotional exhaustion is the feeling of tiredness and fatigue at work ❑ Depersonalization is the development of a cynical and callous feeling toward others ❑ Reduced personal accomplishment is the feeling that the employee is not accomplishing anything worthwhile at work 13 Research suggest two ways to reduce burnout. First, burnout can be reduced by taking a vacation (Fritz & Sonnentag, 2006; Westman & Eden, 1997), although the recovery is likely to be short lived, with burnout levels returning after a few weeks back on the job. Second, organizations need to encourage managers to provide emotional support to employees by positive feedback and engaging in discussions of positive aspects of work (Kahn, Schneider, Jenkins-Henkelman, & Moyle, 2006) 14 7  11/22/2024 Individual Differences in Stress ▪ Different threshold levels of resistance to stressor ▪ Resilience to stress depends on personality (i.e., Type A and neuroticism more prone) and use of different stress coping strategies ▪ Workaholism Highly involved in work Inner pressure to work Low enjoyment of work 15 Appraisal is the extent to which a person interprets an event or situation to be personally threatening. Not everyone will see the same situation as a job stressor. The employee's perception and appraisal of the stressor are essential parts of the process. One person who is given an extra work assignment sees it as an opportunity to make a good impression on the supervisor, while another sees it as an unfair imposition on free time. 16 8  11/22/2024 Managing Work-Related Stress ▪ Remove the stressor Minimize/remove stressors ▪ Withdraw from the stressor Vacation, rest breaks ▪ Change stress perceptions Positive self-concept, humor ▪ Control stress consequences Healthy lifestyle, fitness, wellness ▪ Receive social support 17 WORK SCHEDULES 18 9  11/22/2024 Night Shifts  Many organizations, such as hospitals and police departments, run 24 hours per day, requiring the use of two or three shifts of workers to cover the entire day  A typical three-shift sequence includes the day shift (8 a.m. to 4 p.m.), the evening shift (swing) (4 p.m. to 12 a.m.) and the night or graveyard shift (12 a.m. to 8 a.m.)  Some organizations hire people to work a fixed shift (they work the same shift all the time), while others use rotating shifts (employees work one shift for a limited time, and then switch to another shift)  The major health problem with working night shifts is that the typical sleep/waking cycle is disturbed 19 Shift work is associated with disruptions in the circadian rhythms (the 24-hour cycles of physiological functions maintained by every person). These include body temperature changes and changes in hormone levels in the bloodstream. Night shifts can cause health problems by disrupting these natural rhythms. 20 10  11/22/2024 Most obvious health problem in working night shifts is sleep disturbance—either being unable to fall asleep or having poor quality of sleep (Daus, Sanders, & Campbell, 1998) ▪ Barton and Folkard (1991) found that employees on temporary night shifts had greater sleep problems than employees who worked permanent night shifts, but the permanent night shift workers were no more likely to have sleep problems than the day shift workers ▪ Aside from disruption of the circadian rhythm, Koller et al. (1978) believe that night shift workers get worse sleep because there is more noise during the day when they are trying to sleep ▪ Digestive system problems have also been shown to be more frequent in night shift workers because of the decrease in gastrin, a hormone which is related to stomach acid secretion 21 Circadian rhythm disturbance Physiological and Night work psychological effects Sleep disturbance Night shift leads to both circadian rhythm disturbance and sleep problems. These in turn lead to physical problems, such as stomach upset, and psychological problems, such as anxiety. 22 11  11/22/2024 ▪ Shift works can also cause social problems. Having to work nights and sleep days can isolate a person from family and friends ▪ Individuals who reported conflict between work and non-work activities tended to report the greatest dissatisfaction with shift work (Bohle & Tilley, 1998) ▪ Budd, Arvey, and Lawless (1996) conducted a survey of employed people and found that assaults were most commonly experienced at night 23 Compressed Workweeks  Longer shifts than the typical full time work, usually involving either 10 hours a day for 4 days, or 12 hours a day for 3 days  Many employees have jobs that do not have fixed shifts but can require long work days (truck and bus drivers, police officers)  Some organizations that operate 24 hours per day have gone to two 12-hour shifts per day  Disadvantages: Work fatigue is one important difficulty with the long work day (Bendak, 2003)  Advantages: More vacation days, more time to spend with family, opportunity to moonlight, and reduced commuting costs and times  Most organizations provide 20–40 minutes of paid breaks during the workday; employers can give a place to nap 24 12  11/22/2024 Raggatt (1991) conducted a study of Australian bus drivers that showed that long shifts might have serious health effects. The length of the work shift was associated with sleep problems, alcohol consumption, and use of stimulants (pills). 25 Flexible Work Schedules  Although fixed daily work schedules is still the norm, increasingly organizations have been trying flexible schedules (flextime) that allow workers to determine, at least in part, the hours of the day that they work  There are many varieties, from systems requiring only that employees work their allotted hours per day to systems that allow employees the option of starting their shift an hour early or an hour late  From the organization’s perspectives, an advantage of a flexible work schedule is that it allows employees to take care of personal business on their own time rather than on work time 26 13  11/22/2024 Baltes et al. (1999) confirmed that there is less absence, less overtime, higher job satisfaction, less role conflict, and increased productivity in a flextime schedule, and Ralston (1989) found less tardiness with a flextime than with fixed work schedules. 27 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY ❖ Physical work conditions tend to have direct physical effects on people ❖ Sometimes the effects are immediate, as when an employee is injured in an automobile accident ❖ Other times illness or injury may develop after exposure at work for many years to a harmful condition (e.g., loud noise or toxic substance) ❖ Serious illness and injury are almost certainly associated with some level of psychological distress and trauma ❖ Steps can be taken to avoid or minimize accidents and exposures to harmful conditions through the adoption of safe workplace design and safe procedures for doing the job 28 14  11/22/2024 Occupational Health Psychology ▪ This emerging subfield in psychology is concerned with the psychological factors that contribute to occupational health and well-being ▪ It deals with psychological reactions to physical and nonphysical work conditions, as well as behavior that has implications for health 29 Characteristics of jobs and job-related experiences have an important impact on health and well-being. Firefighters noted that having to deal with someone’s death and being injured or nearly killed were the most traumatic events they encountered. 30 15  11/22/2024 People in health professions, such as nurses and physicians, also deal with injury and death. 31 Police officers must not only deal with such matters affecting others but themselves face the risk of becoming victims. 32 16  11/22/2024 "There is a major problem in our society with children growing up not knowing what is right and wrong. This is not about poverty but culture. A culture that glorifies violence, show disrespect to authorities and says everything about rights but nothing about responsibility“ – British PM David Cameron addressing parliament about the London violence 33 It takes years to become injured from repetitive motions, such as typing. 34 17  11/22/2024 Frequent Sources of Illness and Injury Source Occupation Infectious disease Dentist, nurse Loud noise Airline baggage, musician Physical assault (fatal) Police officer, taxi driver Physical assault Nursing home aide, (nonfatal) psychiatric nurse Repetitive actions and Data-entry clerk, nurse lifting Toxic substances Exterminator, farmer 35 SAFETY CLIMATE is the shared perception by employees that safety is important and they should take steps to work safely ❖ The climate is reflected in the policies of the organization and in the practices it adopts that are relevant to safety, such as the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) ❖ Organizations that are high on safety climate have employees who behave more safely and have fewer accidents than organizations that are low on safety climate 36 18  11/22/2024 Reducing Unsafe Acts 1. Identify and try to eliminate potential risks, such as unguarded equipment 2. Reduce potential distractions, such as noise, heat, and stress 3. Carefully screen, train, and motivate employees 4. Praise employees when they choose safe behaviors 5. Listen when employees offer safety suggestions, concerns, or complaints 6. Be a good example, for instance, by following every safety rule and procedure 37  Employees who must deal with the public (e.g., Infectious Disease hairstylists, police officers, sales clerks, teachers) may be exposed to infectious diseases  Exposure to serious infectious diseases is a particular concern to people in the healthcare professions, who must deal with seriously ill and dying patients  Murphy, Gershon, and DeJoy (1996) noted that AIDS exposure is a major source of job stress for healthcare workers, frequently leading to anxiety and distress  With many employees traveling to and from international destinations, monitoring and controlling infectious diseases has become an important safety issue 38 19  11/22/2024 Universal Precautions, a set of safety procedures that can dramatically reduce exposure. These include: 1. Disposing of sharp objects in a special sharps container. 2. Wearing disposable gloves when handling blood or bodily fluids. 3. Immediately cleaning all bodily fluid spills with disinfectant. 4. Recapping needles that have been used. 39 Sick Building Syndrome  Sealed buildings can produce illnesses such as itchy eyes and trouble breathing, a phenomenon some call “sick building syndrome”  Emissions from printers and photocopiers and other chemical pollutants, left unmonitored, can dramatically reduce air quality  The solution is to institute continuous monitoring systems 40 20  11/22/2024 Workplace Smoking  It is not illegal to deny employment to a smoker. “A No-Smokers Hired” policy is not discrimination, because smoking is not a disability  After giving enough notice of warning and offering smoking secession assistance, you can begin firing or forcing out all workers who smoke, including those who do so in the privacy of their homes 41 Loud Noise  Loud noise occurs at many jobs, particularly those involving heavy equipment or machinery  Airports, construction sites, factories and mines can all be noisy places, exposing employees to conditions that can affect both their health and their job performance  The intensity of noise is measured in decibel (dB) units  Exposure to extremely loud noises, such as explosions, can severely damage a person’s sense of hearing, sometimes permanently  Of even more concern at work is continuous exposure to moderately loud noise that exceeds 85 decibels that if continued over a period of months or years can lead to permanent hearing loss 42 21  11/22/2024 The hair cells are very fragile: Once dead they are never replaced. By the time you are 65, more than 40% of them will be gone. If you work in noisy environment or enjoy loud music, motorcycling, snowballing, hunting, or similar pursuits, you may be risking noise-induced hearing loss. When you abuse them you lose them. 43 140 Jet airplane at takeoff (rocket launch at 180) 120 Club and concert music Power drill, power 100 lawn mower 80 Trucks and machinery 60 Conversation 40 Bird chirping, normal noise at home Soft whisper 20 SOURCE: Sound Sense, by National Safety Council, 1992, 0 Breathing Itasca, IL: Author. 44 22  11/22/2024 That, at 65 decibels, hearing loss can result in sensitive individuals? That, at 85 decibels, helping behavior decreases? (Mathhews & Canon, 1975) That, at 93 decibels, driving performance decreases? (Finkelman, Zeitlin, Filippi, & Friend, 1977). And, angry people become more aggressive? (Donnerstein & Wilson, 1976) That, brief exposure to 130 decibels can result to permanent deafness? (Trahiotis & Robinson, 1979) 45 o Because of the potential for hearing damage, many countries have laws governing the legal levels of noise exposure o Employees who work in noisy environments are given hearing protection to prevent hearing loss o Besides hearing damage, there is evidence suggestive of a link between noise exposure at work and cardiovascular disease, specifically high blood pressure (Melamed, et al., 2001) 46 23  11/22/2024 Repetitive Actions  Many jobs require repeated physical actions by various body parts  Employees who use computers at work often spend their entire day typing  Traditional assembly-line work requires workers to perform the same operation over and over, while other jobs require the lifting of heavy objects or people  Repetitive actions can result in repetitive strain injuries, in which the body parts involved can become inflamed and sometimes permanently damaged  Lifting can result in acute injury, often to the lower back. 47 o Urban transit workers who drive buses or trains are most at risk for back or neck pain (Greiner & Krause, 2006) o Nurses are subject to back injury from lifting patients (Rickett, Orbell, & Sheenan, 2006). Both kinds of injuries are forms of musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) o Those who do a lot of keyboard work or typing are at risk for carpal tunnel syndrome, a wrist injury that causes pain, numbness, and weakness in the fingers and hands. It is brought on by repeated use of http://www.baerpm.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/baer-performance-marketing-video.jpg the fingers and wrist. 48 24  11/22/2024 o Position wrists at the same level as the elbow. A wrist rest can help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome in people who use computer o Employees should take a 3 to 5-minute break from working at the computer every 20 to 40 minutes, and use the time for other tasks, like making copies. o Use adjustable chairs with mid-back supports. Don t stay in one position for long periods. o Acute lifting injuries can be reduced by the use of mechanical devices that take a heavy load (Rickett et al., 2006) 49 Toxic Substances  Many jobs entail exposure to toxic substances, such as employees in chemical plants, exterminators, and farm workers who use insecticides  Office workers in enclosed buildings can also be exposed to various chemicals, such as toners from copying machines or solvents used to clean ink  Reactions to exposure can range from fairly minor symptoms, such as headache or nausea, to serious conditions that can permanently damage vital organs, such as the kidneys or liver  The problem with exposure to many substances is that adverse health effects such as cancer can take years or decades to develop 50 25  11/22/2024 Workplace Violence  For most occupations, fatal assaults are extremely rare, and employees are safer at work than almost anywhere else they might be  However, there are occupations for which homicide is a more significant risk, such as taxi drivers, liquor store clerks, police officers, and gas station attendants  Nonfatal assault is far more common for those who work with the public  People who work in nursing homes, social service agencies, and hospitals are at the greater risk of violence by their patients 51 Robyn, a hospital nurse, was assaulted by a patient. Michael Anthony Richard, a psychiatric patient, physically attacked four employees in a California state hospital. Barling, Rogers, and Kelloway (2001) found that many home-care medical workers (e.g., home-care nurses) reported being subject to some form of violence in their work, including being hit, kicked, pushed and spat on. 52 26  11/22/2024 Four Types of Workplace Violence Violence Definition Likely Occupation to Type Experience It Type 1 Strangers Convenience store clerk, committing a crime taxi driver (no business relation with the organization) Type 2 Client/Customer/ Nurse, social worker Patient Type 3 Other employees Any job with coworker contact Type 4 Relationship Any job (relationship violence that spills over to the workplace) 53 Guarding Against Workplace Violence 1. Heighten security measures: external lighting, mirrors, alarms and surveillance cameras, provide training in conflict resolution and nonviolent response, close establishments during high-risk hours late at night, zero-tolerance policy toward workplace violence 2. Improve employee screening: Test for attitude towards revenge and carefully check references. Be vigilant for prior insubordinate or violent behavior on the job, criminal history involving harassing or violent behavior, prior termination for cause with a suspicious (or no) explanation, history of drug or alcohol abuse, etc. 54 27  11/22/2024 Dismissing Violent Employees 1. Anticipate, based on the person’s history, what kind of aggressive behavior to expect 2. Have a security guard nearby when the dismissal takes place 3. Clear away furniture and things the person might throw 4. Don t wear loose clothing that the person might grab 5. Don t make it sound as if you re accusing the employee; instead, say that according to company policy, you re required to take action 6. Maintain the person’s dignity and try to emphasize something good about the employee 7. Provide job counseling for terminated employees, to help get the employee over the traumatic post-dismissal adjustment 8. Consider obtaining restraining orders against those who have exhibited a tendency to act violently in the workplace 55 References 1. Aamodt, M. G. (2016). Industrial and organizational psychology: An applied approach (8th ed.). CA: Cengage Learning 2. Dessler, G. (2013). Human resource management (13th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 3. McShane, S.L., & Von Glinow, M.A. (2010). Organizational behavior: Emerging knowledge and practice for the real world (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4. Spector, P.E. (2008). Industrial and organizational behavior: Research and practice (5th ed.). NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 56 28  TEAM DYNAMICS Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy. Certified Specialist in Industrial/Organizational Psychology [email protected] I/O Psychology 1 What underlies the importance of groups? 1. Information Age: No one person can have technical expertise in all areas of knowledge. The team approach, representing a pooling of mental resources, becomes more tenable 2. More educated and trained workers: They are more qualified and willing to serve in the types of roles called for in work teams. 3. Rate of change in work activities: pressures to make new products, modify services, alter processes to improve quality, and in general be in a continual state of transformation. These pressures drive a need for diverse skills, expertise, and experience 2 1  GROUP defined Four criteria that need to be met (Gordon, 2001): a) UNIT: The members of the group must see themselves as a unit b) GROUP REWARDS: The group must provide rewards to its members c) CORRESPONDING EFFECTS: Anything that happens to one member of the group affects every other member d) COMMON GOAL: The members of the group must share a common goal 3 Reasons for Joining Groups ▪ Assignment: Members are assigned to groups ▪ Physical Proximity: People tend to form groups with people who live or work nearby ▪ Affiliation: People have a very strong need to be with other people ▪ Identification: The desire for some identification with some groups or cause ▪ Emotional Support: Groups provide emotional support for their members ▪ Assistance or Help ▪ Common Interests ▪ Common Goal 4 2  Five Social Skills (Prieto, 1993): 1. Gain the group acceptance 2. Increase solidarity 3. Be aware of the group consciousness 4. Share the group identification 5. Manage other’s impression of him or her 5 Factors Affecting Group Performance 6 3  Factors Affecting Group Performance Group Homogeneity is the extent to which members are similar. A homogenous group contains members who are similar in some or most ways. A heterogeneous group contains members who are more different than alike. Homogenous groups result in higher member satisfaction, higher levels of communication and interaction, and lower turnover Slightly heterogeneous groups performed somewhat better than did homogenous and heterogeneous groups (Mascio, Rainey, and Zinda, 2008) Group members who are most different in terms of race, sex, or age may have lowest satisfaction and are likelier to leave organization (Sacco & Schmitt, 2005) 7 Factors Affecting Group Performance Group Cohesiveness is the extent to which group members like and trust one another, are committed to accomplishing a team goal, and share a feeling of group pride The more cohesive the group, the greater its productivity and efficiency, member interaction and satisfaction Can lower group performance: when employees become too cohesive, they often lose sight of organizational goals Rule of Conformity: The greater the cohesiveness of a team, the greater the conformity of members to team norms Employees in cohesive work groups will conform to a norm of lower production even though they are capable of higher performance (Forsyth, 2006) 8 4  Factors Affecting Group Performance ▪ Stability: Groups in which members remain for long periods of time and have previously worked together perform better ▪ Isolation: Groups that are isolated or located away from other groups tend to be highly cohesive ▪ Outside Pressure: Groups pressured by outside forces also tend to become highly cohesive ▪ Group Status: A group can be made more cohesive by increasing group status, for example, by increasing perception that the group is difficult to join ▪ Group Ability and Confidence: Groups consisting of high ability members outperform those with low-ability members (Devine & Phillips, 2001) 9 How to Influence Group Cohesiveness TARGETS How to Decrease How to Increase Cohesion Cohesion Create disagreement Goals Get agreement Increase heterogeneity Membership Increase homogeneity Restrict within group Interactions Enhance within group Make group bigger Size Make group smaller Focus within group Competition Focus on other group Reward individual Rewards Reward group results results Open up to other Location Isolate from other group group Disband the group Duration Keep group together 10 5  Informal Groups Groups that exist primarily for the benefit of their members without being officially designated by the organization They form spontaneously through personal relationships and special interests Friendship Groups: Consists of persons with natural affinities for one another. They tend to work together, sit together, take breaks together, etc. Interest Groups: Consists of persons who share common interests, such as to learn about new computers (work) or community service, sports, or religion (non-work) 11 Social network analysis A tool used to identify the informal groups and networks of relationships that are active in an organization. ▪ Informal groups can speed up workflow as people assists each other in ways that cut across the formal structures. ▪ The social network analysis typically asks people to identify coworkers who help them most often, who communicate with them regularly, and who energize and de-energize them. 12 6  Formal Groups Groups that are official and designated to serve specific organizational purposes Some formal groups are permanent and ongoing and appear on organization charts as departments (e.g., market research department), divisions (e.g., consumer product division), or teams (e.g., product assembly team) Some formal groups are temporary and short-lived, i.e., created to solve specific problems or perform defined tasks and are disbanded once the purpose has been accomplished (e.g., temporary committees and task forces) 13 Formal Groups 1. Cross-functional (parallel) teams Consist of members representing different functional departments or work units (e.g., team may consist of members from manufacturing, marketing, human resources, and accounting); designed to beat functional silos problem Functional silos problem: Occurs when members of functional units focus only on their internal functional matters and minimize their interactions with members dealing with other functions 14 7  Formal Groups 1. Cross-functional teams Problem-solving teams are set up to deal with specific problems or opportunities (e.g., committees, task forces, and special project teams) Employee involvement teams are those whose members meet regularly to collectively examine important workplace issues (e.g., ways to enhance quality, better satisfy customers, etc.) Quality Circles: A small team of persons who meet periodically to discuss and develop solutions for problems relating to quality and productivity 15 Formal Groups 2. Virtual Team Members convene and work together electronically via computers; Can accomplish same tasks as face-to- face teams, but are free from geographic barriers. Advantages: Cost-effectiveness and speed; Focuses task accomplishment and decision making by reducing the emotional considerations that may surface in face- to-face meetings Disadvantages: Lack of personal contact between team members may impair development of work relationship and productivity 16 8  Formal Groups 3. Self-Managing Teams Small teams empowered to make the decisions needed to manage themselves on a day-to-day basis; a form of job enrichment for teams Duties often replace those that were traditionally done by the manager as members can make decisions about scheduling work, allocating tasks, etc. Multiskilling is important, where team members are each capable of performing many different jobs 17 18 9  Formal Groups 3. Self-Managing Teams (continued) Advantages: ▪ Productivity and quality improvements ▪ Production flexibility and faster response to technological change ▪ Reduced absenteeism and turnover ▪ Improved work attitudes and quality of work life 19 Formal Groups 3. Self-Managing Teams (continued) Disadvantages: ▪ Structural changes in job classifications and management levels eliminate the need for first- line supervisors ▪ Managers must learn to deal with teams rather than individuals ▪ Supervisors who are displaced by self-managing teams may feel threatened 20 10  Teams at Whole Foods Markets Whole Foods Markets organizes employees around self-directed teams, responsible for a particular store area. These teams have considerable autonomy to operate their store section. 21 What are Teams? Group of people with complementary skills, brought together to achieve a common purpose for which they hold themselves collectively accountable. 22 11  Open Systems Model of Team Effectiveness Resources Norms Task Outputs Inputs Throughputs Technology Cohesion Performance Structures Roles Member satisfaction Rewards Communication Team viability Information Decision making 23 What are Teams? ✓ Groups of two or more people ✓ Exist to fulfill a purpose ✓ Interdependent -- interact and influence each other ✓ Mutually accountable for achieving common goals ✓ Perceive themselves as a social entity 24 12  Advantages and Disadvantages of Teams Advantages Under the right conditions, teams make better decisions, develop better products/services Better information sharing Higher employee motivation/engagement - Fulfills drive to bond - Closer scrutiny by team members - Team members are benchmarks of comparison 25 Advantages and Disadvantages of Teams Disadvantages Individuals better/faster on some tasks when they have all the necessary knowledge and skills Process Losses: resources (including time and energy) expended toward team development and maintenance rather than the task Brooks’s Law: Team performance suffers when a team adds members because those employees need to learn how the team operates and how to coordinate efficiently with other team members Social Loafing: The problem occurs when people exert less effort when working in teams than when working alone 26 13  Teamwork Synergy Social Facilitation Theory Social Loafing Team Design Elements: team size, composition, diversity TEAM EFFECTIVENESS 27 Team Effectiveness A team is effective when it achieves high levels of task performance, member satisfaction, and team viability – Task performance: Members attain performance goals regarding quantity, quality, and timeliness of work results. – Members satisfaction: Members believe that their participation and experiences are positive and meet important personal needs. – Team viability: Members are sufficiently satisfied to continue working together on an ongoing basis; viability = team can survive 28 14  Teamwork – Occurs when team members accept their collective responsibility to best use their skills by actively working together to achieve goals. 29 Synergy – The creation of a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts – Individual can accomplish more through teamwork than by working alone 30 15  Social facilitation theory Individual behavior is influenced by the presence of others in a group or social setting ▪ Positive result is extra effort when individual has the skills required for the task. ▪ Negative result is an increase in social loafing and withdrawal from the group. 31 Common Team Challenges ▪ Social loafing ▪ Personality conflicts ▪ Uncertain or competing goals ▪ Poorly defined agendas ▪ Perceptions that team lacks progress 32 16  Social Loafing ▪ The tendency of people to work less hard in a group than they would individually ▪ German psychologist Max Ringleman pinpointed the phenomenon by asking people to pull a rope as hard as they could, first alone, and then as part of a team. ▪ Reasons for social loafing: o Individual contributions are less noticeable in the group context; o Some prefer to see others carry the workload 33 3 Reasons for Social Loafing (Locke et al., 2001) 1. Free riding: desire to benefit (or free ride) from the efforts of others; likely to occur when team members believe their own contributions cannot be identified. 2. The “sucker” effect: people reduce their effort to match the low level they expect from others 3. Felt dispensability: Team members may feel dispensable when more able team members are available to accomplish the task or when they believe their efforts are redundant because they duplicate the contributions of others 34 17  How to Minimize Social Loafing Make individual performance more visible – Form smaller teams – Define roles and tasks – Specialize tasks – Make performance expectations clear – Measure individual performance – Tie individual rewards to performance contributions to the group 35 Team Size Smaller teams are better because: – need less time to coordinate roles and resolve differences – require less time to develop more member involvement, thus higher commitment But team must be large enough to accomplish task 36 18  Team Composition ▪ Effective team members must be willing and able to work on the team ▪ Effective team members possess specific competencies (5 C’s) 37 5 Competencies of Effective Team Members 1. COOPERATING. Effective team members are willing and able to work together rather than alone; includes sharing resources and accommodating the needs and preference of others 2. COORDINATING. Effective team members actively manage the team’s work so that it is performed efficiently and harmoniously; requires knowing the work of others 3. COMMUNICATING. Effective team members transmit information freely (rather than hoarding), efficiently (using the bet channel and language), and respectfully (minimizing arousal of negative emotions) 38 19  5 Competencies of Effective Team Members 4. COMFORTING. Effective team members help coworkers to maintain a positive and healthy psychological state. They show empathy, provide psychological support, and build coworker feelings of confidence and self-worth. 5. CONFLICT RESOLVING. Effective team members have the skills and motivation to resolve dysfunctional disagreements among team members. This requires effective use of various conflict- handling styles as well as diagnostic skills to identify and resolve the structural sources of conflict. 39 Shell Looks for Team Players Shell holds the 5-day Gourami Business Challenge in Europe, North America, and Asia to observe how well the university students work in teams. One of the greatest challenges is for students from different cultures and educational specializations to work together. 40 20  Team Composition: Diversity Team members have diverse knowledge, skills, perspectives, values, etc. Advantages – better for creatively solving complex problems – broader knowledge base – better representation of team’s constituents Disadvantages – take longer to become a high- performing team – more susceptible to “faultlines” – increased risk of dysfunctional conflict 41 Forming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning BRUCE TUCKMAN’S STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT 42 21  Stages of Team Development Performing Norming Storming Existing teams Forming might regress Adjourning back to an earlier stage of development 43 FORMING STAGE – A period of testing and orientation in which members learn about each other and evaluate the benefits and costs of continued membership – People tend to be polite, will defer to authority, and try to find out what is expected of them and how they will fit into the team – Member challenges Discover expectations Evaluate value of membership Defer to existing authority Test boundaries of behavior 44 22  STORMING STAGE – A period of high emotionality and tension and is marked by interpersonal conflict as members become more proactive and compete for various team roles – Member challenges: Hostility and infighting Compete for team roles Influence goals and means Formation of coalitions and cliques Clarification of members’ expectations 45 NORMING STAGE – The point at which the members really begin to come together as a coordinated unit as roles are established and a consensus forms around group objectives and a common or complementary team- based mental model – Member challenges: Holding team together may over supersede task accomplishment Sense of cohesiveness may discourage minority views Can result in false sense of team maturity 46 23  PERFORMING STAGE – The point when member have learned to efficiently coordinate and resolve conflicts – Members are highly cooperative, have high level of trust in each other, are committed to group objectives, and identify with them – Marks the emergence of a mature, organized, and well-functioning team motivated by group goals – Member challenges Dealing with complex tasks Maintaining effort toward performance 47 ADJOURNING STAGE – Stage occurs when the team is about to disband and team members shift their attention away from task orientation to a relationship focus – A well-integrated team is able to: Disband when its work is finished Work together in the future 48 24  Team Building Team Norms Team Cohesion IMPROVING TEAM PROCESSES 49 Teambuilding – Team development, including sorting out team roles, takes time, so many companies try to speedup the process through team-building activities – It is a process that consists of formal activities intended to improve the development and functioning of a work team – Should begin with a sound diagnosis of the team's health and then select team-building interventions that address weaknesses 50 25  Team Norms Informal rules and shared expectations team establishes to regulate member behaviors Performance norm conveys expectations about how hard team members should work and what the team should accomplish Norms develop through: – Initial team experiences – Critical events in the team’s history – Experience/values members bring to the team 51 Types of Team Norms and Examples ❑ Ethics norms—“We try to make ethical decisions, and we expect others to do the same” (positive); “Don’t worry about inflating your expense account; everyone does it here” (negative) ❑ Organizational and personal pride norms—“It’s a tradition around here for people to stand up for the company when others criticize it unfairly” (positive); “In our company, they are always trying to take advantage of us” (negative) ❑ High-achievement norms —“In our team, people always try to work hard” (positive); “There’s no point in trying harder on our team; nobody else does” (negative) 52 26  Types of Team Norms and Examples ❑ Support and helpfulness norms—“People on this committee are good listeners and actively seek out the ideas and opinions of others” (positive); “On this committee it’s dog-eat-dog and save your own skin” (negative) ❑ Improvement and change norms—“In our department people are always looking for better ways of doing things” (positive); “Around here, people hang on to the old ways even after they have outlived their usefulness” (negative) 53 Preventing/Changing Dysfunctional Team Norms ❑ State desired norms when forming teams ❑ Select members with preferred values ❑ Discuss counter-productive norms ❑ Reward behaviors representing desired norms ❑ Disband teams with dysfunctional norms 54 27  Groupthink Constructive Conflict Brainstorming Nominal Group Technique Delphi Technique IMPROVING TEAM DECISIONS 55 Decision making is the process of choosing among alternative courses of action 56 28  Team Decision Making Constraints Time constraints – Time to organize/coordinate – Production blocking Evaluation apprehension – Belief that others are silently evaluating you Peer pressure to conform – Suppressing opinions that oppose team norms Groupthink – Tendency in highly cohesive teams to value consensus at the price of decision quality – Concept losing favor -- consider more specific features 57 Groupthink ▪ The tendency of cohesive group members to lose critical evaluative capabilities ▪ Occurs because team members seek conformity and become unwilling to criticize each other’s ideas and suggestions ▪ Desires to hold the team together, feel good, and avoid unpleasant disagreements bring about an http://www.digitalsherpa.com/blog/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/social-media-marketing-tool.png emphasis on agreement and an under emphasis on critical discussion; often results to poor decision 58 29  Symptoms of Teams Displaying Groupthink 1. Illusions of invulnerability—Members assume that the team is too good for criticism or beyond attack 2. Rationalizing unpleasant and discomforting data— Members refuse to accept contradictory data or to thoroughly consider alternatives 3. Belief in an inherent group morality—Members act as though the group is inherently right and above reproach 4. Stereotyping competitors as weak, evil, and stupid— Members refuse to look realistically at other groups 59 Symptoms of Teams Displaying Groupthink 5. Applying direct pressure to deviants to conform to group wishes—Members refuse to tolerate anyone who suggests the team may be wrong 6. Self-censorship by members—Members refuse to communicate personal concerns to the whole team 7. Illusions of unanimity—Members accept consensus prematurely, without testing it completeness 8. Mind guarding—Members protect the team from hearing disturbing ideas or outside viewpoints 60 30  What Team Leaders Can Do to Avoid Groupthink ✓ Assign the role of critical evaluator to each team member ✓ Have the leader avoid seeming partial to one course of action ✓ Create subgroups that each work on the same problem ✓ Have team members discuss issues with outsiders and report back ✓ Invite outside experts to observe and react to team processes ✓ Assign someone to be a “devil’s advocate” at each meeting ✓ Hold “second-chance” meetings after consensus is apparently achieved 61 General Guidelines for Team Decisions ❖ Team norms should encourage critical thinking ❖ Sufficient team diversity ❖ Ensure neither leader nor any member dominates ❖ Maintain optimal team size ❖ Introduce effective team structures 62 31  Constructive Conflict NASA’s Constructive Conflict room during investigations on the ill-fated space shuttle Columbia in 2003 Courtesy of Johnson Space Center/NASA The type of conflict that occurs when people focus their discussion on the issue while maintaining respect for people having other points of view Problem: constructive conflict easily slides into personal attacks 63 BRAINSTORMING: A free-wheeling, face-to face meeting where team members aren’t allowed to criticise but are encouraged to speak freely, generate as many ideas as possible, and build on the ideas of others. RULES OF BRAINSTORMING 1. Speak freely—describe even the craziest ideas 2. Don’t criticize others or their ideas 3. Provide as many ideas as possible– the quality of ideas increases with the quantity of ideas 4. Build on others’ ideas 64 32  NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE: A variation of brainstorming that involves structured rules for generating and prioritizing ideas; ideal to use when the team is so large that open discussion and brainstorming are awkward to manage THREE STAGES 1. Participants silently and independently document their ideas 2. Participants collectively describe these ideas to the other team members without critique, and then 3. Silently and independently evaluate the ideas presented 65 DELPHI TECHNIQUE: For situations when group members are unable to meet face-to-face, this approach involves generating decision-making alternatives through a series of survey questionnaires Procedures: 1. Questionnaires are distributed online or in hard copy to a panel of decision makers, who submit initial responses to a decision coordinator 2. The coordinator summarizes the solutions and sends the summary back to the panel members, along with a follow-up questionnaire 3. Panel members again send in their responses, and the process is repeated until a consensus is reached and a clear decision emerges 66 33  C ONFLICT AND N EGOTIATION IN THE W ORKPLACE Don’t underestimate the power of “Yes” Gerald B. Peñaranda, M.Sc., RPsy.