Psychology Major PDF

Chapter 7 1. Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning  What is learning? Learning is like adding new knowledge or skills into your brain's 'toolkit' through experiences.  How do we learn?  Through association (Classical conditioning): This means you connect two things in your mind becau...

Chapter 7 1. Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning  What is learning? Learning is like adding new knowledge or skills into your brain's 'toolkit' through experiences.  How do we learn?  Through association (Classical conditioning): This means you connect two things in your mind because they appear together. Example: If you eat a certain food and get sick, you might feel nauseous next time you see that food.  Through consequences (Operant conditioning): Here, learning is about what happens after you do something. Example: If you study and get good grades, you'll likely study more in the future.  Through acquisition of mental information (Cognitive learning): This is when you learn by actively processing information. Example: Learning how to solve a math problem by understanding the steps. 2. Classical Conditioning  Watson: A psychologist who believed that psychology should predict and control behavior.  Behaviorism: The idea that psychology should be about observable behaviors, not internal thoughts. While most psychologists today think it's important to consider observable behavior, they also believe what goes on inside the mind (thoughts, feelings) is important. 3. Classical Conditioning  Pavlov: A scientist known for ringing a bell when feeding dogs, which led them to salivate at the sound of the bell even without food. This showed how a new behavior (salivating at the bell) can be learned by association. 4. Basic  Classical conditioning: It's the process of learning to connect di erent things in your environment. For instance, thunder and lightning happen together, so you might start bracing for a loud sound when you see a flash. 5. Classical Conditioning  Generalization: After you've made an association, sometimes you respond the same way to similar things. Example: If a child learns that a flu y white dog is friendly, they may think all flu y white animals are friendly.  Discrimination: This is learning to tell the di erence between things, so you don't make the same response to everything. Example: The child might learn that not all animals with white fur are friendly, just their neighbor's dog. 6. Applications of Classical Conditioning  Pavlov's principles to influence health and well-being: The things we associate can a ect our mental and physical health.  Consciousness, motivation, etc.: Our inner experiences can be shaped by learning associations. Example: Feeling relaxed in a certain chair because you usually relax there.  Addiction therapy: Avoiding things that make you crave drugs can be part of treatment. Example: A recovering alcoholic might avoid bars.  Immunology: Sometimes, associating a taste with a drug that a ects the immune system can make the taste alone a ect immunity. Example: Drinking a uniqueflavored drink while taking a medication could later trigger an immune response just from the drink. 7. Applications of Classical Conditioning  Pavlov's work and Watson: Watson believed that emotions and behaviors are mostly learned responses, shaped by our environment.  Little Albert experiment: Watson showed that fear could be learned through classical conditioning by making a child afraid of a white rat by associating it with loud noises. 8. Operant Conditioning  This is a type of box used in experiments to show how animals learn from the consequences of their actions. Example: A cat learns to pull a lever in the box to get food. 9. Operant Conditioning  Principles of operant conditioning: Behavior is influenced by rewards or punishments.  Environment influences behavior: We act in certain ways to get rewards or avoid punishments.  Learning from consequences: Animals (including humans) learn from what happens after their actions.  Reinforcement and punishment: Doing things that lead to good outcomes tends to increase, while those that lead to bad outcomes decrease. 10. Skinner and Skinner's Experiments    B.F. Skinner: He expanded on earlier ideas to explain how behaviors are shaped by consequences.  Behavioral technology: Skinner created methods and devices for studying and influencing behavior.  Skinner box: A special chamber used to study operant conditioning by recording animals' responses to rewards and punishments. Operant Conditioning o Reinforcement: Anything that makes a behavior more likely to happen again. Example: Giving a child a toy for cleaning their room encourages them to clean it in the future. o Shaping: Gradually teaching a behavior by rewarding steps toward the goal. Example: Training a dog to fetch by giving treats for each step like chasing, picking up, and returning a ball. Types of Reinforcers o Positive reinforcement: Adding something good to increase a behavior. Example: A bonus for meeting sales targets. o Negative reinforcement: Taking away something bad to increase a behavior. Example: The car stops beeping when you buckle your seatbelt.  Types of Reinforcers o Primary reinforcer: Naturally rewarding; you don't need to learn to like it. Example: Food when you're hungry. o Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer: You've learned to value it because it's connected to a primary reinforcer. Example: Money can buy food. o Immediate reinforcement: Happens right after the behavior. Example: A snack right after a task. o Delayed reinforcement: There's a delay between the behavior and the reward. Example: A paycheck at the end of the month.  Schedules of Reinforcement o Fixed-ratio: Reward after a set number of responses. Example: Buy 10 coffees, get 1 free. o Variable-ratio: Reward after a random number of responses. Example: Winning on a slot machine. o Fixed-interval: Reward after a set time period. Example: A sale every Tuesday. o Variable-interval: Reward comes at random times. Example: Random checks for messages leading to occasionally finding one. Operant Conditioning o Punishment: Trying to stop a behavior. o Positive punishment: Adding something bad to decrease a behavior. Example: Getting a speeding ticket.  o      Negative punishment: Taking away something good to decrease a behavior. Example: Losing access to a video game for bad grades. Four Major Drawbacks of Physical Punishment o Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten: The bad behavior might stop for now, but it's not gone for good. The child hasn't learned why the behavior is wrong, just to avoid getting caught. o Punishment teaches discrimination among situations: Kids might learn it’s only wrong to do something in certain places. For example, they might think it’s okay to be rough outside of home where they’re not punished. o Punishment can teach fear: This might make children scared of the punisher rather than understanding why the behavior is bad. o Physical punishment may increase aggression: Children might start using aggression as a solution, like hitting others because that’s what they’ve experienced. Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning o At school: Software that adapts to how well you're learning to help you do better. o In sports: Using rewards to improve how athletes perform. o At work: Using things like bonuses to motivate employees. o At home: Parents use simple reward systems to encourage good behavior in their kids. Reinforcing Desired Behavior and Extinguishing Undesired Ones o Set a realistic goal: Know exactly what you want to change and make sure it’s something you can measure. o Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal: Make a plan for your changes. o Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior: Keep track of your progress. o Reinforce the desired behavior: Give yourself a reward when you do the right thing. o Reduce the rewards gradually: Slowly take away the rewards as your new behavior becomes a habit. Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning o Biological influences: We might be naturally good at some things or have natural responses to others. o Psychological influences: Our past experiences and what we’ve learned before play a big part in what we learn now. o Social-cultural influences: Our social environment and culture shape how and what we learn. For example, being around hard-working people might motivate us to work hard too. Biological Constraints on Conditioning o Limits on operant conditioning: There are natural limits to what behaviors can be trained. Not everything can be taught to every animal, including humans. Biological constraints: Animals, including people, are naturally inclined to form certain associations that help them survive. o Instinctive drift: Sometimes animals go back to their natural behaviors, even after being trained to do something else. Learning by Observation o Observational learning: This is when we learn by watching what others do, not just through our own experiences. For example, a child may learn to clap hands by watching their parents. o Bandura: He’s a famous psychologist who studied observational learning.  Modeling: Acting as an example for others to copy.  Bobo doll experiment: This experiment showed that children would imitate aggressive behavior towards a doll if they saw adults doing it.  Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment: Seeing someone else get rewarded or punished can influence our behavior, too. If a sibling gets a treat for doing chores, you might do chores hoping for the same reward. The Famous Bobo Doll Experiment o These images show the experiment where children watched adults being aggressive to a Bobo doll, and then they acted the same way. This experiment was pivotal in showing how we can learn behaviors just by watching others. Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain o Mirror neurons: Certain brain cells that are thought to fire both when we do something and when we watch someone else do the same thing. This might be how we learn to copy actions and feel empathy. For example, your neurons might activate when you see someone else smile, and you might smile back. Applications of Observational Learning: Prosocial effects o Prosocial: Actions that are positive and helpful to society.  Teaching people skills like communication and sales through modeling. Watching people behave kindly or nonviolently can encourage us to do the same. o        Kids who see helpful behaviors are more likely to help others themselves. Applications of Observational Learning: Antisocial effects o Antisocial: Actions that can harm society or relationships.  Children who see violence might imitate it. For example, if a child watches a lot of violent TV shows, they might think aggression is a good way to solve problems.  Media and culture can promote harmful stereotypes, like telling boys they should be tough or girls should be gentle.  The violence-viewing effect suggests that seeing violence on screen can make people more likely to behave violently in real life. Chapter 8 26. Studying Memory (part 1)  Memory: It's like your brain's way of keeping information handy for later. Imagine your brain as a kind of library and memory is the process of keeping the books in order and knowing where to find them.  Measures of memory:  Recall: Pulling a memory out of storage when it's not right in front of you, like answering a question on a test about something you studied earlier.  Recognition: Realizing something you're experiencing now is something you've learned before, like recognizing a face in a crowd.  Relearning: Learning information or a skill faster the second time around, which shows that some memory was retained from the first learning experience. 27. Studying Memory (part 2)  Psychologists think about memory using models, and one of these is the informationprocessing model, which is a bit like comparing the brain to a computer.  Encoding: Like typing into a computer, it's the process of getting information into your memory.  Storage: Like saving a document, it's how you keep information in your brain.  Retrieval: Like opening a file, it's the process of finding the information again when you need it.  Connectionism information-processing model: This model says that memories are created and stored across a network of neurons in the brain, a bit like how information is shared across the internet. 28. Memory Models (part 1)  Three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shi rin model:  Sensory memory: It's a very brief, initial snapshot of sensory information, like the flash of a camera.  Short-term memory: It's the information you are actively thinking about or aware of at the moment, which you can work on like a puzzle you're currently solving.  Long-term memory: It's the vast storage of knowledge and skills you've built over time, like a warehouse of all the puzzles you've ever completed. 29. A Modified Three-Stage Information-Processing Model of Memory  This diagram shows how we process memory, starting from noticing something in the environment (sensory input), paying attention to it, actively working on that information (working/short-term memory), and then storing it for the long haul (long-term memory). 30. Memory Models (part 2)  Updates to the original Atkinson-Shi rin model include:  Working memory: This emphasizes that short-term memory is not just a waiting room for long-term storage but an active workspace. Automatic processing: This describes the things we learn so well that we do them without thinking, like typing your password or driving home on a familiar route. 31. Memory Models (part 3)  Working memory is an updated concept of short-term memory. It’s not just a temporary holding space; it's an active part of your memory where thinking happens. It processes information you hear (auditory) and things you see and where they are in space (visualspatial information). The central executive is like a manager in your brain that directs attention and pulls information from long-term memory to help with complex tasks. 32. Sensory Memory  Sensory memory is the first stop for incoming information. It holds an exact copy of what you see and hear but only for a very short time.  Iconic memory is a fast snapshot of what you see, lasting about half a second.  Echoic memory is a brief echo of what you hear, lasting about 3-4 seconds. 33. Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing  Our memory system has two paths:  Explicit memories are facts and experiences we can consciously know and "declare." For example, recalling who was the first president of the United States requires effortful processing.  Implicit memories are skills and classically conditioned associations that happen without our awareness. For instance, you can tie your shoes without thinking about how to do it; this is an implicit memory. 34. Short-Term Memory Capacity  Short-term memory can hold a limited amount of information temporarily. George Miller suggested the magical number seven; most people can hold about seven items in their short-term memory.  Working memory can vary; some people can juggle more information at once. This depends on factors like age and practice. 35. Effortful Processing Strategies  Chunking: It’s when you break down a long string of information into smaller, more manageable units, like how a phone number is divided into segments rather than one long number.  Mnemonics: These are memory aids or tricks that use vivid imagery and organizational tools. For instance, using the phrase "Every Good Boy Does Fine" to remember the notes on the lines of the treble clef in music (EGBDF).  Hierarchies: This is organizing information into a few broad concepts that are further divided into narrower concepts and facts. Like categorizing animals into mammals, birds, fish, and so on, then breaking those categories down even further. Slide 1: Levels of Processing  Verbal information is just the stuff we say or read. It gets processed in our brains at different depths, and this can affect how well we remember it later on.  Shallow processing is when you just focus on simple, surface-level stuff, like how the letters in a word look or how the word sounds. For example, if you remember a word because it rhymes with another, that's shallow processing.  Deep processing happens when you really think about the meaning of a word and its relationship to other things. This kind of thinking helps you remember things better. Like, if you link the word “apple” to how it tastes and the fact that it's a fruit, you're processing deeply.  Slide 2: Explicit-Memory System  Semantic memory is all about facts and general knowledge that you can state outright. For instance, knowing that the Earth revolves around the Sun is part of your semantic memory.  Episodic memory is your personal memory of experiences and events. Like if you remember your last birthday party, that’s episodic memory.  Memory consolidation is how your brain takes a new memory and firmly plants it in your mind for the long term. It's like saving a file on your computer so it doesn't get lost. Slide 3: Our Two Memory Systems This slide shows a comparison between two types of memory systems: Implicit memories (also known as nondeclarative) are memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously. They include things like riding a bike or the automatic way you type on a keyboard.  Explicit memories (also known as declarative) need conscious effort to recall. This includes the facts you study for a test (semantic memory) or your recollections of last summer's vacation (episodic memory).  The slide also shows where these memories are processed in the brain and gives examples of each type. Slide 4 & 5: Memory Retrieval Cues (Part 1 & 2)  Retrieval cues are like hints that can help you remember things. There are different types:  Priming means getting your memory ready to think of something. Like if you see a yellow fruit and someone asks you to name a fruit, you might say “banana” because you were primed to think of yellow things. && If you've recently heard the word “beach,” and someone asks you to complete the word stem “bea___,” you’re more likely to say “beach” than “beard” or “beast.”  Context-dependent memory means you remember things better in the place where you first learned them.  State-dependent memory is when you remember things better if you are in the same mood or state (like being happy or caffeine-buzzed) as when you learned them.  Serial position effect is when you remember the first and last items in a list better than the middle ones.  The second part of retrieval cues explains that:  Our memories are linked together in a web of associations.  The best cues for remembering are often the ones that were present when we first made the memory. It's like the brain makes a little map of what was happening when the memory was created, which can help lead you back to that memory later. Slide on Priming: Awakening Associations  When you hear the word rabbit, you're more likely to spell a similar-sounding word, like hare, as h-a-r-e. This is because hearing rabbit unconsciously primes your mind to think of things related to it.  Priming is the psychological effect where one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus, without conscious guidance or intention.  For example, if you see a picture of a library, you might be quicker to recognize a word associated with quietness because libraries are typically quiet places. Slide on Memory Retrieval Cues (Part 3)  Context-dependent memory is about how you remember things better when you're in the same environment where you learned them. For instance, if you study for a test in a silent room, you might recall the information better when you’re in a similar quiet space.  The Encoding specificity principle suggests that recall is most effective when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding. So, if you chew a particular flavor of gum while studying, chewing the same gum during a test could help you remember the studied information. Slide on Memory Retrieval Cues (Part 4)  State-dependent memory is when your ability to remember is influenced by your physical or emotional state. For example, if you learn something when you’re very happy, you may recall it better when you're in a similar cheerful mood.  Mood-congruent memory means you’re more likely to remember memories that match your current mood. So, when you’re sad, you may more easily remember other sad times.  The Serial position effect is the tendency to remember the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst. Slide on When Do We Forget?  Forgetting can happen at any point in the memory process. As we process information, we lose some of it; we may filter out details, alter them, or they may fade entirely.  For example, you might remember seeing a movie but forget the plot details or even the names of the main characters as time passes. Slide on Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind  Humans have two types of memory systems that are controlled by different parts of the brain: implicit and explicit memory.  Forgetting can be caused by:  Encoding failure: when the information never enters long-term memory.  Storage decay: where the memory fades over time.  Retrieval failure: when you can’t access memories that are stored.  Interference: where other information competes with what you're trying to recall.  Motivated forgetting: when you unconsciously or consciously forget something.   Slide on Forgetting: Encoding and Storage Decay Encoding failure: This is when information doesn’t get stored in our memory in the first place. It can happen for a couple of reasons:  Age: As we get older, we might not remember new information as well as we used to. Attention: If we’re not paying attention, we might not notice details, and thus, we won’t remember them later. Like when you can't remember where you parked because you were on the phone while parking. Storage decay: This refers to how memories fade over time. Initially, we forget things quite quickly, but after a certain period, the forgetting slows down. It’s like how you quickly forget the details of a dream after waking up but can remember the main idea for a bit longer. When memories are made, physical changes happen in the brain – these are called memory traces. Slide on Encoding Failure Process This diagram shows the process of memory formation. Starting with external events, information passes through sensory memory and then, if we pay attention, into working/short-term memory. If this information is successfully encoded, it moves into long-term memory storage. If not, encoding failure occurs and we forget. Slide on Retrieval Failure Process Even if information is encoded into long-term memory, we might not always be able to get it out again – this is called retrieval failure. Like when you know that you know someone’s name, but you just can’t seem to remember it at the moment. Slide on Forgetting (Part 1) Interference can also cause forgetting:  Proactive interference: when old information prevents the recall of newer information. Like when you get a new phone number and keep recalling your old one instead.  Retroactive interference: when new learning makes it harder to remember old information. For instance, if you learn a new password, it might make it hard to remember your old one. Slide on Forgetting (Part 2) Motivated forgetting:  Freud thought that we repress memories to protect ourselves from thoughts and feelings that are too di icult to handle, which reduces anxiety.  Today, it’s also believed that we’re more likely to forget information that’s neutral and not emotionally charged. Emotional memories tend to stick around longer.          Slide on Memory Construction Errors (Part 1)  Misinformation e ect: This happens when wrong information gets mixed into our memory of an event. For example, if someone tells you a car was red when it was actually blue, and later you remember it as being red, that’s the misinformation e ect. Imagination e ect: If you keep imagining something that didn't happen, you can start to create a memory of it. Like if you imagine missing a step and falling down repeatedly, you might start to remember it as something that actually happened. Slide on Memory Construction Errors (Part 2)  Source amnesia (source misattribution): This is when you remember the information but forget where, when, or how you learned it. For instance, you might tell a story you heard as if it happened to you because you forget you heard it from someone else.  Déjà vu: This is the weird feeling that you’ve experienced something before, even though it's happening for the first time. It might be because something in the situation is triggering a memory that you can’t fully recall. Slide on Improving Memory  The SQ3R method is a strategy to help you remember things better. It stands for:  Survey: Look over the material to get a basic idea.  Question: Ask questions about what you’re about to learn.  Read: Read the material in detail.  Retrieve: Try to recall what you’ve read without looking.  Review: Go over the material again to help it stick.  Other tips for better memory include:  Rehearse repeatedly: Go over the information many times.  Make the material meaningful: Connect the information to things you already know.  Activate retrieval cues: Use cues that will help you remember (like studying in the same room where you'll take the test).  Use mnemonic devices: Like using the name ROY G. BIV to remember the colors of the rainbow.  Minimize interference: Study di erent subjects at di erent times.  Sleep more: Sleep helps consolidate memories.  Test your own knowledge: Checking what you remember can help reinforce memory and show you what you need to study more. Encoding the right information, avoiding misinformation, and using strategies like SQ3R can greatly improve memory. Being aware of how memories can get mixed up helps in being more critical of what we remember and improving our recall abilities.  Chapter 9 Thinking and Language 1. Cognition: This involves all the mental activities related to thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. It's basically how your mind works and processes information. For example, when you're learning a new topic, cognition is involved in understanding and retaining that information. 2. Concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. Think of "vehicles." This concept includes cars, trucks, bikes, etc. 3. Prototype: A mental image or the best example of a category. It helps sort items into categories quickly. If you think of a bird, you might picture a sparrow, which is a common example or prototype. 4. Category: As you move from prototypes, the boundaries of a category might blur. For example, a penguin is a bird, but it doesn't fly like other birds. Problem-Solving Strategies 1. Algorithm: A logical, methodical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem. For instance, a mathematical formula is an algorithm—you can follow it step-by-step to get an answer. 2. Heuristic: A simpler, quicker strategy that might be more error-prone. It's like a rule of thumb or an educated guess. If you don't know the answer to a question, you might use past experiences to make an educated guess. It's faster but might not always be correct. 3. Insight: A sudden flash of inspiration that solves a problem without a specific strategy. Have you ever been stuck on a problem and then, suddenly, the solution just pops into your head? That's insight. Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments 1. Intuition: A quick, automatic feeling or thought, as opposed to conscious reasoning. Sometimes, you just know something without thinking too much about it—like having a "gut feeling." 2. Representativeness Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on how well they match our prototypes. For example, if someone is dressed in a lab coat, you might assume they're a doctor, even if they're not. 3. Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind. If you hear a lot about plane crashes on the news, you might think they're more common than they are. 4. Belief Perseverance: Holding onto beliefs even when there's evidence proving they're wrong. If someone insists the Earth is flat despite all the scientific evidence, that's belief perseverance. 5. Framing: The way an issue is presented can influence decisions and judgments. If someone says, "90% of patients survive this surgery," it sounds better than, "10% of patients die from this surgery." Overconfidence and Problem-Solving Obstacles 1. Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct. It's when you overestimate the accuracy of your beliefs. A classic example is someone who thinks they know more than they actually do. 2. Confirmation Bias: Preferring information that confirms your existing beliefs and ignoring information that contradicts them. If you believe a certain diet is e ective, you might only pay attention to studies that support that diet. 3. Fixation: Being stuck in one way of thinking, which prevents you from finding a new solution. If you've always solved a problem one way, you might not see other possible solutions. Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments (Part 2) Belief perseverance is the tendency to stick to your initial beliefs even when you are presented with evidence that contradicts them. Imagine you have a friend who believes that a certain restaurant is bad. Even if you show them several good reviews, they might still insist the food is terrible. That's belief perseverance.  Framing refers to the way information is presented, which can a ect decisions and judgments. For example, if a doctor tells a patient that a surgery has a 95% survival rate, the patient may feel good about the odds. But if the doctor says there is a 5% mortality rate, the patient may feel scared, even though both statements mean the same thing. And so... This slide suggests that smart critical thinking involves listening to our subconscious mind, evaluating evidence, testing our conclusions, and planning for the future. This is like a chef tasting their cooking along the way to make sure it's good, rather than just hoping it turns out alright at the end. Thinking Creatively (Part 1)  Creativity is about coming up with new and useful ideas. It is supported by the ability to learn new things (aptitude), general intelligence, and working memory (the ability to hold several pieces of information in the mind at once). Thinking Creatively (Part 2)  Divergent thinking is a way of coming up with many di erent ideas or solutions to a problem. It's like brainstorming as many uses as you can for a paperclip.  Convergent thinking is the opposite; it's about narrowing down multiple ideas to find the single best solution. It's like deciding which of your brainstormed paperclip uses is the most practical. Thinking Creatively (Part 3) Robert Sternberg and colleagues suggest five ingredients for creativity: 1. Expertise: Having a lot of knowledge about something. 2. Imaginative thinking skills: Being able to think in new and unusual ways. 3. Venturesome personality: Being willing to take risks. 4. Intrinsic motivation: Wanting to do something for your own satisfaction, not for rewards. 5. Creative environment: Being in a place that encourages creative thinking.  Algorithmic: This is like following a recipe. It's a step-by-step process that guarantees a solution if done correctly. For example, if you have instructions to assemble a piece of furniture, following each step precisely will lead to the finished product. Powers: Guaranteed solution. Perils: Can take a lot of time and effort. Heuristic: This is a shortcut or a rule-of-thumb to quickly solve problems, like guessing the answer to a multiple-choice question based on patterns you've noticed before. For example, when you’re in a grocery store looking for pasta, you might go straight to the aisle you’ve found pasta in before. Powers: Lets us act quickly and efficiently. Perils: Can lead us to make errors because we're skipping some steps to speed things up. Insight: This is when the answer to a problem suddenly pops into your head. It's like when you're trying to remember a song, and the title just comes to you out of nowhere. Powers: Provides instant realization of a solution. Perils: Might not happen; it’s unpredictable. Confirmation bias: This is when we look for information that confirms what we already believe and ignore what doesn’t. For instance, if you think cats are unfriendly, you'll notice every time a cat ignores a person but not when it's affectionate. Powers: Lets us quickly recognize supporting evidence. Perils: We might overlook or dismiss information that challenges our beliefs, which isn't good for getting to the truth. Fixation: It’s when we can’t see a problem from a new angle, like trying to solve a puzzle but only thinking about one way to fit the pieces together, even if it doesn’t work. Powers: Focuses thinking. Perils: Hinders creative problem-solving. Intuition: This is when we know something without knowing why, like feeling that a friend is upset before they say anything. It's based on our experiences. Powers: Fast and automatic; based on experience. Perils: Can lead us to overfeel and underthink. Overconfidence: It’s when we are too sure of our beliefs and judgments, like when someone thinks they're definitely going to win a game and then they don't. Powers: Makes us happy and willing to take decisions. Perils: Can make us ignore risks and take poor decisions. Belief perseverance: This is when we stick to our initial beliefs even when there's evidence against them. Imagine you believe in a health trend despite new studies showing it’s not effective. Powers: Supports our existing beliefs. Perils: We might refuse to accept new information that could be helpful. Framing: This is how the way a question or statement is worded can influence how we respond to it. For example, if a sign says “90% fat-free” instead of “contains 10% fat,” more people are likely to buy it, even though both mean the same thing. Powers: Can influence others' decisions. Perils: Can lead to misunderstandings or misjudgments. Creativity: This is the ability to come up with new and valuable ideas. Like when an artist creates a painting that’s different from anything you’ve seen before. Powers: Leads to new insights and products. Perils: May be difficult to maintain in structured, routine work. Chapter 10 1. What Is Intelligence?  Intelligence is simply our ability to learn from experiences, solve problems, and use our knowledge to adjust to new situations. For example, when you learn to ride a bike (experience) and then use that skill to navigate a busy street (problem-solving) or to take a di erent path when your usual route is blocked (adapting). 2. Spearman’s General Intelligence (g)  Spearman believed that we have one general intelligence. Think of it as a core engine that powers all our thinking and problem-solving abilities, much like a CPU in a computer.  He also noted that our various skills (like math, verbal, spatial abilities) do tend to be linked to each other. If you're good at math, chances are you'll be decent in other areas too because of this "general intelligence." 3. Thurstone's Response  Thurstone o ered a di erent take, identifying seven di erent primary mental abilities through tests, like word fluency or spatial visualization. For example, someone might be exceptional at creating mental images of objects (spatial visualization) but not as good with words (verbal comprehension). 4. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences  Gardner went a step further and suggested that intelligence is not one but multiple abilities that come in di erent packages. According to him, we have at least eight intelligences, such as musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal intelligences. For instance, a dancer may have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, while a therapist may have high interpersonal intelligence. 5. Sternberg’s Three Intelligences  Sternberg proposed three kinds of intelligence:  Analytical intelligence (problem-solving in academics),  Creative intelligence (coming up with new ideas),  Practical intelligence (everyday task-solving). For example, a scientist may have high analytical intelligence, an artist high creative intelligence, and a seasoned traveler high practical intelligence. 6. Emotional Intelligence  Emotional intelligence is about understanding our emotions and those of others. It involves:  Perceiving emotions (like reading expressions and body language),  Understanding emotions (predicting feelings and how they might change),  Managing emotions (knowing how to respond to feelings appropriately),  Using emotions (to assist thinking and problem-solving). 1. Assessing Intelligence  An Intelligence test is a tool used to measure a person's mental skills and compare them to others. It's like taking a snapshot of how well your brain works in areas like reasoning and memory. An Aptitude test tries to predict your ability to learn new skills. This could be used to guess how well you'll do learning a language or playing an instrument.  An Achievement test measures what you've already learned, like a final exam in a class. Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities (part 2)  Alfred Binet developed tests to help identify children who needed educational assistance. He believed the environment played a big role in intelligence and that children developed mentally at different rates. For example, not all kids learn to read at the same age, but they eventually get there. Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities (part 3)  Lewis Terman adapted Binet's test for use in the U.S. and created the Stanford-Binet test. This test was based on the idea that intelligence is inborn. He introduced the concept of IQ (intelligence quotient), which is calculated by dividing a person's mental age by their chronological age and then multiplying by 100. So, a 10-year-old who solves problems at the level of an average 8-year-old would have an IQ of 125. Early and Modern Tests of Mental Abilities (part 4)  David Wechsler developed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), which is the most widely used intelligence test today. It gives an overall intelligence score and also scores for different abilities, like understanding words or remembering things quickly. It's helpful because it can show where someone is strong or needs improvement, like being great with words but slow at solving puzzles. Principles of Test Construction  A good test needs to be standardized (given in the same way to everyone), reliable (gives consistent results over time), and valid (actually measures what it claims to measure). Imagine if a ruler gave you different measurements for the same table every time you used it; it wouldn't be reliable or very usefu Terms to Learn  Standardization is making sure a test is given in the same way to everyone and scoring is consistent, like making sure all runners in a race start at the same line and time.  Reliability is about a test giving you the same result if you take it multiple times, like a reliable alarm clock that wakes you up at the same time every day.  Validity is ensuring that the test really measures what it's supposed to, like checking if a cooking thermometer is accurate by boiling water and seeing if it reads 100°C (or 212°F). Aging and Intelligence  Crystallized intelligence refers to our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills, which get better over time. Think of it like a library in your mind that keeps getting more books as you learn more words and facts.  Fluid intelligence is your ability to think quickly and solve new problems without relying on previous knowledge. This is like being able to navigate a maze you've never seen before. Unfortunately, it tends to decrease as we get older, especially after 75. Extremes of Intelligence  Testing intelligence also looks at the extremes of the normal curve—how people score at the very high and very low ends. This can tell us a lot about the test's accuracy and usefulness in different populations. The Low Extreme of Intelligence (part 1)  An intellectual disability is diagnosed when a person scores significantly below average on intelligence tests (usually 70 or below) and has trouble with day-to-day living. This can  2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. involve difficulty with conceptual skills (like thinking abstractly), social skills, and practical skills (like taking care of oneself). The Low Extreme of Intelligence (part 2)  Down syndrome is an example of an intellectual disability often associated with a lower IQ and is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.  The U.S. Supreme Court recognized that using a fixed IQ number (like 70) to make serious decisions, such as in death penalty cases, is not perfect and that other evidence should be considered. The High Extreme of Intelligence  The Terman study followed children with high IQ scores over time and found that these children tended to be healthier, more well-adjusted, and more successful academically than the average. Years later, they had achieved higher education levels and more professional success, which suggests a link between high childhood IQ and later success. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 1)  This slide asks whether genetics play a role in intelligence. Research has found that identical twins, who share the same genes, usually have very similar intelligence test scores. This similarity is an indication of the heritability of intelligence, meaning that a significant part of intelligence can be attributed to genetics, estimated to be between 50 to 80 percent. Genetic and Environmental Influences on Intelligence (part 3)  The environment also significantly affects intelligence. In places where there's a wide variation in environment, those differences can be a strong factor in intelligence scores. For example, adoption can lead to higher intelligence scores for children who were previously in neglectful or abusive situations. Also, "virtual twins" (unrelated children of the same age raised together) have some similarity in their intelligence scores (a correlation of +.28), which suggests that the environment they share has an impact. Chapter 11 1. Basic Motivational Concepts  Motivation is a need or desire that makes us act and aim for a goal. For example, hunger motivates you to cook a meal.  The four perspectives for understanding motivation are:  Instinct theory: Suggests our behaviors are hard-wired and genetically programmed, like birds migrating when winter approaches.  Drive-reduction theory: Says that our behaviors are motivated by biological needs. We're driven to do things that reduce our internal discomfort, like eating when we're hungry to reduce the discomfort of hunger.  Arousal theory: This is about finding the right level of excitement or stimulation. Sometimes we seek thrills to increase arousal (like going on a roller coaster) and other times we seek calm (like meditating).  Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: Proposes that some needs (like basic food and safety) must be satisfied before higher-level needs (like self-esteem). 2. Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology Charles Darwin classified many behaviors as instincts but didn't go into detail about why they occur.  An instinct is a fixed, unlearned pattern that is consistent across a species, like a spider spinning a web. Same Motive, Di erent Wiring  The complexity of an organism's nervous system allows for a greater range of motivated behaviors. Humans and animals like weaverbirds build shelters, but how they do it varies greatly due to their di erent abilities. Drives and Incentives  Drive-reduction theory suggests we have physiological needs that create an aroused state that motivates us to satisfy the need, aiming for homeostasis, or balance in our body's systems.  An incentive is an external stimulus that motivates behavior. This could be a reward (like money) or a punishment (like a fine). Drive-Reduction Theory  We have basic biological needs (like for food and water), and not meeting these needs creates a drive (like hunger or thirst) which then leads us to perform actions to satisfy the need (like eating or drinking). Arousal Theory  The Arousal theory suggests we're driven to do things to keep our arousal level balanced. If we're bored (low arousal), we might go out for a run to perk up. If we're stressed out (high arousal), we might meditate to calm down.  The Yerkes-Dodson law explains that we perform best with an optimal level of arousal. Too little and we’re sluggish; too much and we can't concentrate. Like, if you're a little nervous before a presentation, it might motivate you to prepare well, but too nervous and you might forget what to say. A Hierarchy of Needs  Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is like a pyramid for human motivation. At the bottom are basic physical requirements like food and water. Once those are met, we look to satisfy safety needs, like living in a safe place. Further up, we seek belonging and love, followed by esteem needs like being respected. At the top is self-actualization, which is about achieving personal potential and self-transcendence, which involves connecting to something beyond oneself.  3. 4. 5. 1. 2.