Psychology Chapter 45.5-46 PDF

**Poverty** 45.4.01 Absolute and Relative Poverty One consequence of social stratification is **poverty,** which refers to a lack of economic resources (ie, the lower levels of income and fewer assets that are associated with a lower socioeconomic status). Poverty can occur at various levels of so...

**Poverty** 45.4.01 Absolute and Relative Poverty One consequence of social stratification is **poverty,** which refers to a lack of economic resources (ie, the lower levels of income and fewer assets that are associated with a lower socioeconomic status). Poverty can occur at various levels of society, including individuals, families, communities, and nations. Sociologists distinguish between absolute and relative poverty (see Figure 45.4), which have different impacts on life outcomes. **Absolute poverty**, a relatively standardized definition, is the inability to secure the basic necessities of life (eg, food, clean water, safe shelter). In the United States, the **poverty line** is used to identify the income level where basic needs cannot be met; the poverty line determines who qualifies for social services (eg, food stamps, subsidized housing). Alternatively, **relative poverty**, a comparative definition, is the inability to meet the living standards of the society in which one lives. In other words, individuals living in relative poverty can meet their basic needs, but their standard of living is below average. For example, if an individual has permanent housing, but the house or apartment is run-down with broken windows and/or lead paint on the walls, the individual is experiencing relative poverty. **Figure 45.4** Income distribution in a society including absolute and relative poverty. A graph of poverty and poverty Description automatically generated with medium confidence Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 261 45.4.02 Social Exclusion In addition to a lack of material resources, poverty also impacts an individual\'s social experiences. **Social exclusion** is the marginalization of individuals based on stigmatized identities (eg, mental illness) and disadvantaged situations (eg, poverty), limiting full participation in social life. In relation to poverty, social exclusion causes individuals to be disconnected and unable to engage in common practices such as earning money through a job. At times, those living in poverty are removed (ie, physically and socially separated) from mainstream society such as when unhoused individuals are removed from city parks by law enforcement **Health and Healthcare Disparities** 45.5.01 Health Disparities Social stratification affects the delivery of healthcare and individual illness experiences. **Health disparities** describe the inequalities in health outcomes (eg, rates of illness or death) present within society. These patterns of inequality often have a greater impact on disadvantaged groups (eg, racial minorities, individuals in the lower class) as compared to more advantaged groups (eg, individuals who are White, individuals in the upper class). Sociologists view an individual\'s health as shaped by elements of society (eg, social institutions) and individual health behaviors. Several macro-level factors such as the physical environment, employment opportunities, and educational systems, as well as micro-level factors such as individual lifestyle choices (eg, diet, exercise), contribute to an individual\'s health outcomes (see Figure 45.5). **Figure 45.5** Macro- and micro-level factors contributing to individual health outcomes. The demographic categories of class, gender, and race are also associated with disparities in health outcomes. Middle-class and wealthy individuals are often protected from health risks within the physical  Chapter 45: Social Class and Inequality 263 environment, such as pollution, waste, and contaminated water (Lesson 45.3). There is also a consistent gender disparity in life expectancy. For example, in the United States, women live an average of five years longer than men. Lastly, racial minorities often experience higher rates of certain illnesses than people who are White, such as people who are Black having the highest rate of hypertension (ie, high blood pressure) compared to all other racial categories. 45.5.02 Healthcare Disparities **Healthcare disparities** refer to the way elements of healthcare systems (eg, hospitals, research centers, private insurance versus publicly funded models) contribute to inequality, resulting in unequal access to healthcare services. Many factors contribute to healthcare disparities, including relative poverty (Concept 45.4.01), accessibility issues (eg, language barriers, proximity to clinics/hospitals), and institutional discrimination (Concept 40.3.02) within the healthcare system. As with health disparities, individuals in marginalized demographic groups often experience greater healthcare disparities. In relation to social class, wealthy individuals typically have greater access to specialized care, whereas those with low incomes often cannot afford expensive treatments, limiting access to needed care. Another area of healthcare disparity is within medical research used to develop new medications and procedures. Because men have historically been the subjects of medical research studies, a gender disparity in healthcare emerges when treatment protocols for all patients are developed based on data from men only, without considering the possibility of different effects on women\'s bodies. There are also racial disparities in healthcare. For example, a study found that some medical students and residents believed Black patients have less sensitive nerve endings (ie, a higher pain tolerance) than White patients. This racial stereotype resulted in Black patients\' pain being evaluated as less severe, and thus clinicians were less likely to recommend pain treatment **Urbanization** 46.1.01 Urbanization One way societies can change is through the process of **urbanization**, which refers to the shift of individuals primarily living in rural, agricultural communities to centralized cities. Another process that influences *urban growth* is **industrialization** (ie, the development of systems of production based on efficiency). When commerce (ie, business and/or trade) and factories expand within cities, the need for individuals to work and live in urban areas increases. As urban cities grow in both population and commerce, middle-class and upper-class families often leave busy, densely populated city centers and move to the suburbs (ie, neighborhoods developed adjacent to urban areas) for more space and fewer people. **Suburbanization** occurs when there is a large population shift from cities to suburbs; this change can contribute to the *decline of urban areas* because wealth is removed from the cities and transferred to the suburbs. Often when cities reach a critical level of decline, leaders and businesses attempt to *renew urban areas* through rebuilding city infrastructure (eg, roads, public parks) and renovating buildings. **Gentrification** is a process of urban renewal in which lower-income neighborhoods are revitalized (eg, homes restored, new businesses established) by new, higher-income residents. The influx of economic capital into these neighborhoods results in increased property values. Many long-term residents are then displaced from their neighborhoods due to increases in housing and rental prices **Globalization** 46.2.01 Globalization In the world today, nations are not independent societies; rather, nations are interconnected with one another. **Globalization** is the process of integrating various cultures and social institutions (eg, economy, government) from different societies by increasing contact and interdependence across the globe. Two of the primary drivers of globalization are advances in communication technology (eg, Internet, cell phones) and a transnational (ie, globally interdependent) economy (eg, global supply chains, international corporations), which result in global rather than local interactions and transactions. The process of globalization is illustrated in **world systems theory** (see Figure 46.1), which views the world as a global economy where some countries benefit at the expense of others. Within world systems theory, countries are divided into three categories, with each serving a different role in the global economy. **Core nations** (eg, United States, United Kingdom) are wealthy countries with diversified economies and strong, centralized governments. Core nations *rely on resources* (ie, raw materials needed to produce goods) from poorer countries and dominate the global economic market through the production and *export of goods* (eg, electronics) around the world. **Periphery nations** (eg, Bolivia, Kenya) are developing countries typically with weak governments, limited diversity in the economy, and high levels of inequality. Periphery nations rely on the *export of their resources* (eg, natural gas, coffee) to wealthier countries, making them dependent on and often exploited by core nations. **Semi-periphery nations** (eg, India, Brazil) are between core and periphery nations, with economies that are relatively more diversified than those of periphery nations. Semi-periphery nations *export resources* to core nations and produce and *export goods* around the world. **Figure 46.1** Globalization illustrated in world systems theory. A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated **Social Movements** 46.3.01 Social Movements Another way society can change is through actions taken by individuals and/or groups (eg, voting, boycotting). **Social movements** are organized groups that act to either support or reject change in society. Social movements are typically sustained over long periods of time (often for years) through collective actions by individuals who share values and common goals. Notable social movements in the United States include the Civil Rights Movement, various anti-war movements (eg, against the Vietnam War or the Iraq War), and environmental movements (eg, supporting conservation of nature or recycling programs). Social movement **strategies** refer to how groups mobilize (ie, gather resources such as people and money) and plan ways to promote the movement\'s goals. Social movement **tactics** are the specific actions taken by those involved in the social movement, such as protests, strikes, and marches. Typically, the **organization of social movements** (see Figure 46.2) starts with the emergence of an idea (eg, the economic system should have equal opportunities for all people) around which individuals coalesce or unite. Over time, social movements become more organized and bureaucratic and eventually succeed (ie, become mainstream) or fail (ie, dissolve). Social movements may create lasting change in society whether the movement is a success or a failure. For example, in 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement (ie, a protest against corporate greed) achieved no specific goals, but it brought lasting attention to economic inequality in the United States. **Figure 46.2** Common formation and trajectory of social movements.  **Demographic Change** 46.4.01 Theories of Demographic Change Another way societies change is through population growth or decline. In sociology, *demographic* *shifts* refer to changes in population characteristics (eg, total population, average lifespan) within a society over time, and there are several theories that explain the process of demographic change. The **demographic transition model** (illustrated in Figure 46.3) refers to demographic shifts in a society from high birth and death rates (as defined in Concept 46.4.03) to low birth and death rates due to changes in the economy (eg, from an agricultural to industrial system) and advances in technology (eg, reproductive medicine). This transition typically occurs in predictable stages: Stage 1: In preindustrial societies, birth and death rates are both high and population growth is slow. Stage 2: As societies begin to industrialize, death rates drop as food/medicine availability and sanitation increase. Population growth becomes rapid. Stage 3: As societies urbanize, the population continues to grow, but birth rates begin to decline as access to contraception increases. Stage 4: In developed societies, birth and death rates are both low and population growth is slow, creating a stable population. Stage 5: For highly developed societies with very low birth rates, the population may decline; however, Stage 5 is mostly hypothetical because few societies have reached this stage. **Figure 46.3** Graphed stages of the demographic transition model. The **Malthusian theory of population growth** suggests that the human population increases exponentially while resources (eg, food) increase linearly at a slower rate. According to this theory, the population growth rate can be slowed by *preventative checks* (ie, a voluntarily decrease in birth rate, such as through the use of contraceptives) and *positive checks* (ie, an involuntary increase in the death rate, which slows or halts overpopulation). A diagram of a diagram Description automatically generated with medium confidence Chapter 46: Social Change 268 Positive checks can occur through small-scale events such as an increased death rate due to a flu virus within a particular geographic region. Additionally, large-scale positive checks (eg, widespread famine, disease epidemics, wars) dramatically reduce the population by slowing or stopping population growth; as a result, the available resources can more easily sustain the global population. 46.4.02 Population Growth and Decline Sociologists study patterns of population change to make projections about the future. **Population pyramids** are graphs representing the demographics of a society that provide insights into how the population changes. The graphs display the relative number of males and females by age cohort (Concept 44.1.02) within a population. There are three types of population pyramid shapes: expanding, stationary, and contracting (see Figure 46.4). **Expanding** pyramids have broad bases (ie, many younger individuals) and narrow tops (ie, fewer older individuals) and are characteristic of developing countries with high birth and death rates, reflecting an *increasing* population size. **Stationary** pyramids have broad bases and broad tops and are characteristic of developed countries with low birth and death rates and a *stable* population size. **Contracting** pyramids have narrower bases than middles and are characteristic of developed countries with low birth rates and a gradually *declining* population size. **Figure 46.4** Examples and characteristics of the three types of population pyramids. 46.4.03 Fertility and Mortality Population change is impacted by immigration/emigration rates (Concept 46.4.04), **fertility rates** (also known as birth rates), and **mortality** **rates** (also known as death rates). Fertility rates measure population increases due to births, whereas mortality rates measure population declines due to deaths. In sociology, there are multiple ways to report fertility rates: **Total fertility rate** (TFR) is the average number of children born per woman during her lifetime. A TFR above 2 (referred to as the replacement rate) means the population is growing, and a TFR below 2 means the population is shrinking. **Crude birth rate** (CBR) is the number of live births per year for every 1,000 members of a population, which is a rough estimate of annual population growth based on birth only. For example, Uganda (ie, a developing nation) has a higher CBR (around 40), whereas Japan (ie, a developed nation) has a lower CBR (around 7).  Chapter 46: Social Change 269 **Age-specific fertility rate** (ASFR) is the number of live births per year for 1,000 women in a certain age group in a population. For example, in 2019 in the United States, the ASFR for women ages 25--29 is about 94, whereas the ASFR for women ages 40--44 is about 13. The mortality rate (ie, the number of people who die within a population during a specific time period) also impacts population change. Like fertility rates, mortality rates can be reported in several ways. The **crude death rate** refers to the number of deaths per year for every 1,000 members of a population. **Age-specific mortality rates** measure the rate of death within certain age cohorts (Concept 44.1.02) in a population. One example of an age-specific mortality rate is the *infant mortality rate*, which measures the number of deaths of individuals under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a year. 46.4.04 Push and Pull Factors in Migration In sociology, another factor in population change is **migration**, which refers to the movement of individuals within a society (see Lesson 44.5) through emigration (ie, relocation out of an area) and immigration (ie, relocation into an area). Migration patterns can be explained by push and pull factors impacting emigration and immigration, respectively. **Push factors** (eg, natural disasters, war) describe why people move away from their country of origin, whereas **pull factors** (eg, education opportunities for women, economic prosperity) describe why people move to a new country