Psychology Past Paper PDF

1\. Social psychology is\... - [a. The scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behaviour and thought in social situations.] - b\. The study of society by dividing people into large and smaller, primary and temporary groups. - c\. A scientifi...

1\. Social psychology is\... - [a. The scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of individual behaviour and thought in social situations.] - b\. The study of society by dividing people into large and smaller, primary and temporary groups. - c\. A scientific field that focuses on how people become part of a different group, and how membership to these groups helps construct identities. - d\. A scientific field on the way in which people put others (and themselves) into categories, labelling one another based on these interests, ethnicity, race, gender, occupy on, and other factors. 2\. According to equity theory, what do we do when we perceive inequity in a relationship? - [a. Try to restore equity] - b\. Ignore the inequity - c\. Try to revenge/reciprocate - d\. Cheat on our spouse **3.** [True]\ The intrinsic need for love is indeed a primary motivator for making friends and wanting to belong to a group. **4.** [True]\ According to Sternberg\'s triangular theory of love, the three basic components of love are passion, intimacy, and commitment. **5.** [False]\ In close relationships, a secure attachment is characterized by low levels of social anxiety and feelings of safety and trust. **6.** [True]\ The repeated exposure effect (or mere exposure effect) is when you begin to like someone or something more simply because you encounter them frequently. 7\. A secure attachment style in close relationships includes: - a\. High levels of personal conflict - b\. High levels of social anxiety - [c. Satisfaction and trust ] - d\. High levels of despair and depression [Critical test revision questions] 1\. Which of the following represents an objective approach to defining a group? - Common-Identity groups. - Common-bond groups. - [Social groups.] - In-groups. 2\. Characteristics of a group include group norms. [(True]/False). 3\. Political parties are an example of primary groups. (True/[False)]. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **4. Forming** | C. | | | | | | The group forms and the members | | | need to become familiar with each | | | other. Group roles are | | | established. Communication is | | | tentative, with the group leader | | | taking a dominant position. | +===================================+===================================+ | **Storming** | D. | | | | | | Characterized by disagreement and | | | tension. There may be hostility, | | | criticism, and poor attendance. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Norming** | B. | | | | | | Norms and roles develop, and | | | there is an increase in | | | cohesiveness. There is a | | | reduction in tension and | | | increased agreement. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Performing** | A. | | | | | | Tasks have been completed, roles | | | end, and the group disintegrates. | | | This may be accompanied by | | | sadness and regret. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ 5\. Provide four reasons why people belong to or form groups. (4) - [Groups fulfil our need for affiliation] - Groups fulfil our need for love and belonging - [Groups play a considerable role in influencing individual self-esteem] - Groups play a considerable role in the development of self-concept - [Groups are an important source of social support] - Groups satisfy our need for social comparison - [Groups provide a context in which people can pool their resources and solve problems collectively] 6\. Distinguish between a primary, secondary, and reference group and provide an example of each. (6) Primary groups Generally have a small membership and are characterised by intimate direct interactions, strong levels of group identification, strong affective ties between group members, multifaceted relationships and a long period of existence (1). The family is an example of a primary group (1). Secondary groups Have few direct interactions, weak levels of identification with the group, weak affective ties between group members, limited or functional relationships, and a short period of existence (1). A sports team or university class is an example of a secondary group (1). Reference groups Are those groups to which a person does not formally belong, but with which they identify or which they use as a frame of reference (1) An example of a reference group could be an association, interest group or political group (1). ### **Primary Groups** - **Definition:** Generally, it has a small membership and is characterized by intimate direct interactions, strong levels of group identification, strong affective ties between group members, multifaceted relationships, and a long period of existence. - **Example:** The family is a prime example of a primary group, as it provides emotional support, socialization, and deep personal connections among its members. ### **Secondary Groups** - **Definition:** Have few direct interactions, weak levels of identification with the group, weak affective ties between group members, limited or functional relationships, and a short period of existence. - **Example:** A sports team or university class serves as an example of a secondary group, where members interact primarily for specific purposes or activities, rather than for emotional connections. ### **Reference Groups** - **Definition:** Are those groups to which a person does not formally belong but with which they identify or which they use as a frame of reference for evaluating themselves and their behaviors. - **Example:** An example of a reference group could be an association, interest group, or political group, such as environmental advocacy groups that individuals support or identify with even if they are not formal members. 7\. Which of the following terms is used to refer to majority influence? - a)Compliance - b)Obedience - c)Group polarisation - [d)Conformity] ### **Definitions** - **Self-Esteem:** Self-esteem refers to an individual's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It encompasses beliefs about oneself, such as the confidence one feels in their abilities and their self-respect. High self-esteem is associated with positive feelings about oneself, while low self-esteem can lead to negative self-perceptions and emotional distress. - **Self-Concept:** Self-concept is the perception that individuals have of themselves, which includes their beliefs, attributes, and who they think they are. It is shaped by personal experiences, social interactions, and feedback from others. Self-concept encompasses various aspects, including physical appearance, skills, and social roles. ### **Group Influence on Self-Esteem and Self-Concept** Groups can significantly influence an individual\'s self-esteem and self-concept, particularly when their membership in the group becomes central to their identity and when they have strong emotional ties to that group. #### **Example 1: Sports Teams** Being part of a sports team can enhance an individual's self-esteem and self-concept. Team members often identify closely with their group, experiencing a sense of belonging and camaraderie. This affiliation can foster a positive self-image as athletes receive encouragement, recognition, and support from their teammates and coaches. For instance, a player who contributes to their team\'s success may feel a sense of pride and increased self-worth, reinforcing their self-concept as an athlete. The shared identity and emotional connections within the team can lead members to perceive their affiliation as a core aspect of who they are, which can further boost their self-esteem. #### **Example 2: Cultural or Ethnic Groups** Membership in a cultural or ethnic group can also shape self-esteem and self-concept. Individuals who feel a strong connection to their cultural heritage may derive pride and identity from their group membership. For example, a person who actively participates in cultural events and traditions may feel a sense of belonging and acceptance within their community. This connection can enhance their self-esteem, as they feel valued and supported by others who share their cultural background. The social identity formed through cultural affiliation contributes to a positive self-concept, as individuals see themselves as part of a larger narrative that celebrates their heritage and values. ### **Definitions** **Self-esteem** refers to an individual's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. It is how much a person appreciates and likes themselves, which can be influenced by various factors, including social interactions and group memberships. **Self-concept** is the cognitive representation of oneself, encompassing beliefs, attributes, and roles. It is how individuals perceive themselves, which can be shaped by experiences, social identity, and the groups to which they belong. ### **Influence of Groups on Self-Esteem and Self-Concept** Groups can significantly influence an individual\'s self-esteem and self-concept through social identity. When individuals strongly identify with a group, such as a sports team, their self-esteem is closely tied to the group\'s success and the perceptions of other members. Here are two examples demonstrating this influence, including a focus on the South African context: #### **Example 1: Rugby Team** In South Africa, rugby is more than just a sport; it represents national pride and unity. For individuals who are members of a rugby team or fans of the national team (e.g., the Springboks), their self-concept often incorporates this affiliation. When the Springboks succeed in international competitions, fans experience a boost in self-esteem. Their social identity as supporters of a successful team enhances their sense of belonging and pride, reinforcing their self-worth. This affiliation can lead to a positive self-concept, as they view themselves as part of a victorious and culturally significant group. Conversely, if the team performs poorly, it can negatively impact the self-esteem of its supporters. They may feel embarrassed or disheartened, as their identity is closely linked to the team\'s performance. This illustrates how group membership can confer self-esteem based on collective success or failure. #### **Example 2: Cultural or Ethnic Identity Groups** Another example is cultural or ethnic identity groups, such as those formed around South Africa\'s diverse communities (e.g., Zulu, Xhosa, or Afrikaans). Individuals who strongly identify with their cultural group often derive a sense of pride and self-esteem from their heritage and the collective experiences shared within the group. This cultural affiliation enhances their self-concept by providing a sense of belonging and community support. For instance, participation in cultural events, celebrations, or rituals can affirm an individual's identity and bolster self-esteem. Feeling connected to one's roots and receiving affirmation from the group fosters a strong social identity that individuals rely on during challenging times. However, if there are societal tensions or stigma associated with their cultural group, it can lead to lowered self-esteem and a negative self-concept, highlighting how group dynamics significantly impact personal identity. 1. A two-year old boy who plays with cars and guns and shows aversion to playing with dolls illustrates early sign of a\. Gender-role aversion b\. [Gender-stereotypical behaviour ] c\. Gender labelling d\. Gender modelling ### **Three psychological impacts that poverty has on individuals** 1. **Hopelessness and Inability to Escape the Poverty Trap:** Individuals in poverty often experience feelings of hopelessness and despair due to their limited opportunities and resources. This sense of entrapment can lead to a lack of motivation and a belief that improving their situation is impossible, resulting in a cycle of poverty and mental distress. 2. **Uncertainty About the Future and Vulnerability to Adverse Life Events:** Poverty creates an environment of uncertainty, where individuals constantly worry about their basic needs, such as food, shelter, and safety. This ongoing stress can lead to anxiety and heightened vulnerability to adverse life events, such as job loss or health crises, which can further exacerbate mental health issues. 3. **Alienation from Mainstream Society:** Individuals living in poverty may feel alienated from mainstream society due to stigma, discrimination, and social exclusion. This alienation can lead to feelings of isolation and inadequacy, negatively impacting self-esteem and contributing to mental health struggles. The lack of social support and connection can further perpetuate feelings of loneliness and despair. ### **Understanding Masculinity: Traditional vs. New** **Traditional Masculinity:** Traditional masculinity refers to a set of cultural norms and expectations associated with male behavior that has been prevalent in many societies. Key characteristics of traditional masculinity include: 1. **Strength and Stoicism:** Traditional masculine ideals emphasize physical strength, emotional restraint, and the ability to endure hardship without showing vulnerability. 2. **Provider Role:** Men are often seen as the primary breadwinners and responsible for the financial support of their families, reinforcing the notion that success is tied to economic power. 3. **Dominance and Aggression:** Traditional masculinity often promotes dominance over others and the use of aggression to assert power, both in personal relationships and social interactions. 4. **Heteronormativity:** Traditional masculinity is closely tied to heterosexual norms, promoting the idea that masculinity is defined in opposition to femininity and often involves a rejection of traits or behaviors associated with women. 5. **Limited Emotional Expression:** Men are often discouraged from expressing emotions openly, leading to a culture that prioritizes rationality over emotional intelligence, which can hinder healthy emotional development. **New Masculinity:** New masculinity, sometimes referred to as \"progressive masculinity\" or \"positive masculinity,\" challenges traditional norms and embraces a more inclusive and flexible understanding of what it means to be male. Key characteristics of new masculinity include: 1. **Emotional Awareness:** New masculinity encourages men to acknowledge and express their emotions openly, promoting emotional intelligence and mental health. It recognizes that vulnerability is a strength, not a weakness. 2. **Equity and Inclusivity:** New masculinity advocates for gender equality and recognizes the value of diverse identities. It promotes collaboration and shared responsibilities in relationships, moving away from rigid gender roles. 3. **Redefining Strength:** Strength is redefined to include qualities like compassion, empathy, and support for others. Men are encouraged to be nurturing and caring, whether in familial, platonic, or romantic relationships. 4. **Challenge to Heteronormativity:** New masculinity embraces a broader understanding of gender and sexuality, supporting LGBTQ+ identities and challenging the binary definitions of gender. It acknowledges that masculinity can exist in various forms and expressions. 5. **Responsibility and Nurturing:** This approach promotes shared responsibilities in caregiving and domestic roles. It values nurturing qualities, such as empathy and compassion, as essential traits for men. 6. **Focus on Community and Support:** New masculinity emphasizes the importance of building supportive networks among men, fostering a sense of community, and combating isolation. This shift encourages men to seek help and support from others rather than adhering to the \"lone wolf\" stereotype. ### **1. Intersectionality** **Definition:** Intersectionality is a framework for understanding how various forms of social stratification, such as race, gender, class, sexuality, and other identities, intersect and interact to create unique experiences of oppression and privilege. Coined by scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw, this concept highlights that individuals may experience discrimination or marginalization differently depending on the combination of their identities. For example, a Black woman may face challenges that are different from those faced by a White woman or a Black man due to the overlapping effects of racism and sexism. ### **Sex** **Definition:** Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female or male. These characteristics include reproductive systems, chromosomes (typically XX for females and XY for males), and secondary sexual traits, such as breast development in females and facial hair in males. It is primarily associated with biological differences. ### **2. Gender** **Definition:** Gender refers to the social, cultural, and psychological attributes, roles, and expectations associated with being male or female in a given society. It encompasses the norms and behaviors that a society considers appropriate for men and women, which can vary significantly across different cultures and historical periods. Gender identity (one's personal sense of their gender) and gender expression (how one presents their gender through behavior, clothing, etc.) may or may not align with the sex assigned at birth. ### **3. Feminist Theory** **Definition:** Feminist theory is an analytical framework that seeks to understand the nature of gender inequality and the social constructs surrounding gender. It examines how power dynamics and social structures contribute to the oppression of women and other marginalized genders. Feminist theory also advocates for social, political, and economic equality between genders, exploring various topics such as patriarchy, sexuality, and the intersection of gender with other social categories (such as race and class). It encompasses a range of perspectives, including liberal feminism, radical feminism, socialist feminism, and intersectional feminism. ### **4. Gender Roles and Norms** **Definition:** Gender roles are the expectations and behaviors that society considers appropriate for individuals based on their perceived gender. These roles dictate how individuals should act, dress, speak, and conduct themselves in various contexts. Gender norms are the informal guidelines and societal beliefs that reinforce these roles, influencing how individuals experience their identities and interactions. For example, traditional gender roles may dictate that men should be assertive and career-focused while women should be nurturing and family-oriented. These roles and norms can be restrictive and may change over time as societies evolve. ### **Critiques of Cognitive-Developmental Approaches in Gender Studies** Cognitive-developmental approaches, notably associated with theorists like Lawrence Kohlberg and Jean Piaget, emphasize the role of cognitive processes in the understanding and expression of gender. While these theories have contributed significantly to the field, they have also faced various critiques: 1. **Overemphasis on Individual Cognition:** a. **Critique:** Cognitive-developmental theories tend to focus heavily on individual cognitive processes, often neglecting the broader social and cultural contexts that shape gender understanding. This can lead to a limited perspective that does not account for how socialization, cultural norms, and external influences affect gender identity and roles. b. **Example:** For instance, while a child may develop a cognitive understanding of gender categories (e.g., knowing what behaviors are considered masculine or feminine), they might still be heavily influenced by family, media, and peers, which are not adequately considered in cognitive-developmental models. 2. **Neglect of Emotions and Identity:** c. **Critique:** Cognitive-developmental approaches often overlook the emotional aspects of gender identity formation and the complexities of how individuals negotiate their identities. Gender is not solely a cognitive construct; it also involves feelings, experiences, and interpersonal dynamics that shape how one identifies and expresses gender. d. **Example:** A child may intellectually understand gender norms but may feel emotionally conflicted about these norms. For example, a boy who enjoys playing with dolls might feel pressured to conform to traditional masculine behaviors, leading to internal conflict that cognitive approaches fail to address. 3. **Cultural Bias:** e. **Critique:** Many cognitive-developmental theories were developed based on Western, middle-class perspectives, which may not be universally applicable. These theories can inadvertently perpetuate cultural biases by presenting their findings as generalizable, thereby overlooking the diversity of gender experiences across different cultures and socioeconomic backgrounds. f. **Example:** In some cultures, gender roles and expectations differ significantly from Western norms. Cognitive-developmental approaches may inadequately capture these variations, leading to a narrow understanding of gender that does not account for cultural diversity in gender expression and roles. ### **Relationship Between Poverty and Mental Health** The relationship between poverty and mental health is complex and multifaceted, influencing individuals' psychological well-being and overall life satisfaction. Here are key points to consider: 1. **Increased Stress and Anxiety:** a. **Explanation:** Living in poverty often involves constant stress due to financial instability, job insecurity, and inadequate access to resources. This chronic stress can lead to heightened anxiety, depression, and other mental health disorders. Individuals may worry about basic needs, such as housing, food, and healthcare, which can create a persistent state of anxiety. b. **Example:** A parent living in poverty may experience anxiety about their ability to provide for their children, leading to sleep disturbances, irritability, and an inability to focus on daily tasks. 2. **Limited Access to Mental Health Services:** c. **Explanation:** Individuals in poverty often face barriers to accessing mental health care, including financial constraints, lack of insurance, and transportation issues. This limited access can prevent them from receiving the support and treatment they need, exacerbating their mental health conditions. d. **Example:** A person experiencing depression may not seek therapy due to the cost or because local mental health services are unavailable, resulting in untreated symptoms that worsen over time. 3. **Social Isolation and Stigmatization:** e. **Explanation:** Poverty can lead to social isolation, as individuals may feel stigmatized by their socioeconomic status or unable to engage in social activities due to financial constraints. This isolation can contribute to feelings of loneliness and despair, which can adversely affect mental health. f. **Example:** A person living in poverty may avoid social gatherings due to embarrassment about their financial situation, leading to loneliness and exacerbating feelings of depression. 4. **Intergenerational Effects:** g. **Explanation:** The relationship between poverty and mental health can be intergenerational, where children raised in impoverished conditions may inherit both economic disadvantage and associated mental health issues. This can create a cycle of poverty and mental health challenges that perpetuates across generations. h. **Example:** A child growing up in a low-income household may experience trauma, stress, and instability, which can affect their mental health and future socioeconomic prospects, potentially leading them to repeat the cycle of poverty. 5. **Impact on Resilience and Coping Mechanisms:** i. **Explanation:** While some individuals develop resilience despite poverty, others may struggle to cope effectively with their circumstances. Poverty can limit access to positive coping mechanisms, such as education, social support, and healthy lifestyle choices, which are essential for maintaining mental health. j. **Example:** A young adult facing poverty might resort to unhealthy coping strategies, such as substance abuse, due to a lack of support systems or access to mental health resources, which can further deteriorate their mental health. ### **. Domestic Violence** - **Definition:** Violence that occurs within the home, often between intimate partners or family members. - **Examples:** - **Physical Abuse:** Hitting, slapping, or choking a partner. - **Emotional Abuse:** Verbal insults, manipulation, or threats. - **Financial Abuse:** Controlling a partner\'s finances or restricting access to money. ### **2. Violence for Material Gain** - **Definition:** Violence committed to acquire money, property, or resources. - **Examples:** - **Robbery:** Using force or intimidation to steal money or belongings from someone. - **Burglary:** Breaking into a home or business with the intent to commit theft. - **Mugging:** Attacking someone in a public place to steal their possessions. ### **3. Sexual Violence** - **Definition:** Any sexual act or attempt to obtain a sexual act by coercion or without consent. - **Examples:** - Rape or sexual assault. - Unwanted sexual advances or harassment. - Coercing someone into sexual acts through threats or manipulation. ### **7. Self-Directed Violence** - **Definition:** Actions that individuals take to harm themselves, which can result in injury or death. - **Examples:** - Suicide attempts or completed suicides. - Self-harm behaviors, such as cutting or burning oneself. - Substance abuse that leads to health deterioration. ### **8. Collective Violence** - **Definition:** Violence committed by groups of people, often targeting specific groups or communities. - **Examples:** - Riots or mob violence. - Ethnic cleansing or genocidal acts against particular groups. - Terrorist attacks aimed at instilling fear or achieving political objectives.