PSYCHOLOGICAL-PRELIM-REBYOUWHERE.pdf

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (PRELIMS) Testing and Assessment  The roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment can be found in early twentieth-century France.  In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to help place Paris schoolchildren in...

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT (PRELIMS) Testing and Assessment  The roots of contemporary psychological testing and assessment can be found in early twentieth-century France.  In 1905, Alfred Binet and a colleague published a test designed to help place Paris schoolchildren in appropriate classes.  Within a decade an English-language version of Binet’s test was prepared for use in schools in the United States  When the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I in 1917, the military needed a way to screen large numbers of recruits quickly for intellectual and emotional problems  During World War II, the military would depend even more on psychological tests to screen recruits for service. Following the war, more and more tests purporting to measure an ever-widening array of psychological variables were developed and used. There were tests to measure not only intelligence but also personality, brain functioning, performance at work, and many other aspects of psychological and social functioning. Psychological Assessment  the gathering and integration of psychology related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation that is accomplished through the use of tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observation, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedures.  Gather information about the client then give meaning to it base on your own interpretations.  Evaluation of data.  Interviews  Observations  Questionnaires and surveys  Review of records (Case History) Psychological Testing  the process of measuring psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures designed to obtain a sample of behavior.  To obtain a sample of behavior  Follows manuals, instructions, specific time span  Personality Test  Neuropsychological Test, and the like. Testing in contrast to Assessment Varieties of Assessment EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT  the use of tests and other tools to evaluate abilities and skills relevant to success or failure in a school or pre-school context RETROSPECTIVE ASSESSMENT  the use of evaluative tools to draw conclusions about psychological aspects of a person as they existed at some point in time prior to the assessment. REMOTE ASSESSMENT  the use of tools of psychological evaluation to gather data and draw conclusions about a subject who is not in physical proximity to the person or people conducting the evaluation. ECOLOGICAL MOMENTARY ASSESSMENT (EMA)  the “in the moment” evaluation of specific problems and related cognitive and behavioral variables at the very time and place that they occur The Process of Assessment 1. the process of assessment begins with a referral for assessment from a source such as a teacher, school psychologist, counselor, judge, clinician, or corporate human resources specialist ex. Of referral questions:  “Can this child function in a general education environment?, ”  “Is this defendant competent to stand trial?, ”  “How well can this employee be expected to perform if promoted to an executive position?” 2. The assessor may meet with the assessee or others before the formal assessment in order to clarify aspects of the reason for referral. The assessor prepares for the assessment by selecting the tools of assessment to be used 3. Subsequent to the selection of the instruments or procedures to be employed, the formal assessment will begin. After the assessment, the assessor writes a report of the findings that is designed to answer the referral question. More feedback sessions with the assessee and/or interested third parties (such as the assessee’s parents and the referring professional) may also be scheduled. 4. Different assessors may approach the assessment task in different ways. Some assessors approach the assessment with minimal input from assessees themselves. Other assessors view the process of assessment as more of a collaboration between the assessor and the assessee.  collaborative psychological assessment - the assessor and assessee may work as “partners” from initial contact through final feedback  therapeutic psychological assessment - therapeutic self-discovery and new understandings are encouraged throughout the assessment process 5. Another approach to assessment that seems to have picked up momentum in recent years, most notably in educational settings, is referred to as dynamic assessment- (1) evaluation, (2) intervention of some sort, and (3) evaluation. The Tools of Psychological Assessment A. THE TEST  A test may be defined simply as a measuring device or procedure.   A psychological test refers to a device or procedure designed to measure variables related to psychology (such as intelligence, personality, aptitude, interests, attitudes, or values).  Psychological tests and other tools of assessment may differ with respect to a number of variables, such as content, format, administration procedures, scoring and interpretation procedures, and technical quality.  Tests differ with respect to their psychometric soundness or technical quality.  Reliability  Validity  Utility B. THE INTERVIEW  involves more than talk; taking note of not only the content of what is said but also the way it is being said (verbal and nonverbal behavior) o Nonverbal behavior may include the interviewee’s “body language, ” movements, and facial expressions in response to the interviewer.  In its broadest sense, then, we can define an interview as a method of gathering information through direct communication involving reciprocal exchange.  Interviews differ with regard to many variables, such as their purpose, length, and nature. C. THE PORTFOLIO  work products—whether retained on paper, canvas, film, video, audio, or some other medium  As samples of one’s ability and accomplishment D. THE CASE HISTORY DATA  refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee. E. BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATIONS  monitoring the actions of others or oneself by visual or electronic means while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding those actions.  naturalistic observation- observe behavior of humans in a natural setting F. ROLE-PLAYTESTS  assessees are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation  can thus be used as both a tool of assessment and a measure of outcome. G. COMPUTERS AS TOOLS  Computers can serve as test administrators (online or off) and as highly efficient test scorers.  consultative report. - type of report, usually written in language appropriate for communication between assessment professionals, may provide expert opinion concerning analysis of the data  integrative report- will employ previously collected data (such as medication records or behavioral observation data) into the test report  CAPA refers to the term computer-assisted psychological assessment  CAT for computer adaptive testing H. OTHER TOOLS  psychologists may use many of the tools traditionally associated with medical health and the like. Who Are the Parties?  The test developer Test developers and publishers create tests or other methods of assessment. The American Psychological Association (APA) has estimated that more than 20,000 new psychological tests are developed each year.  The test user Psychological tests and assessment methodologies are used by a wide range of professionals, including clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, human resources personnel, consumer psychologists, experimental psychologists, and social psychologists.  The testtaker anyone who is the subject of an assessment or an evaluation can be a testtaker or an assesse A psychological autopsy may be defined as a reconstruction of a deceased individual’s psychological profile on the basis of archival records, artifacts, and interviews previously conducted with the deceased assessee or people who knew him or her. Other parties: Organizations, companies, and governmental agencies sponsor the development of tests for various reasons, such as to certify personnel. In What Types of Settings Are Assessments Conducted, and Why?  Educational settings Achievement test- evaluates accomplishment or the degree of learning that has taken place. diagnosis may be defined as a description or conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and opinion. diagnostic test - refers to a tool of assessment used to help narrow down and identify areas of deficit to be targeted for intervention. In educational settings, diagnostic tests of reading, mathematics, and other academic subjects may be administered to assess the need for educational intervention as well as to establish or rule out eligibility for special education programs. informal evaluation - a typically nonsystematic assessment that leads to the formation of an opinion or attitude.   Clinical Settings The tests employed in clinical settings may be intelligence tests, personality tests, neuropsychological tests, or other specialized instruments, depending on the presenting or suspected problem area.  Counselling Settings Measures of social and academic skills and measures of personality, interest, attitudes, and values are among the many types of tests that a counselor might administer to a client.  Geriatric settings Wherever older individuals reside, they may at some point require psychological assessment to evaluate cognitive, psychological, adaptive, or other functioning quality of life evaluations are variables related to perceived stress, loneliness, sources of satisfaction, personal values, quality of living conditions and quality of friendships and other social support Dementia is a loss of cognitive functioning (which may affect memory, thinking, reasoning, psychomotor speed, attention, and related abilities, as well as personality) that occurs as the result of damage to or loss of brain cells. How Are Assessments Conducted? Where to Go for Authoritative Information: Reference Sources Test catalogues this source of test information can be tapped by a simple telephone call, e-mail, or note publishers’ catalogues usually contain only a brief description of the test and seldom contain the kind of detailed technical information that a prospective user might require. Test manuals Detailed information concerning the development of a particular test and technical information relating to it should be found in the test manual, which usually can be purchased from the test publisher However, for security purposes the test publisher will typically require documentation of professional - training before filling an order for a test manual. Professional books Many books written for an audience of assessment professionals are available to supplement, re- organize, or enhance the information typically found in the manual of a very widely used psychological test. Reference volumes: Mental Measurements Yearbook series was compiled by Oscar Buros in 1938 Journal articles Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, Psychological Assessment, Educational and Psychological Measurement, Applied Measurement in Education, and the Journal of Personality Assessment. Purpose of Assessment  Screening -is a quick part of the assessment process, usually involving a single procedure or instrument used to determine whether an individual has a high risk of having a specific problem and needs more in- depth assessment at that time. -Through screening process, an individual is identified as having a high risk for a disorder, then further assessment is warranted.  Identification and Diagnosis -Diagnosis- “detailed analysis of an individual’s strengths and weaknesses, with the general goal of arriving at a classification decision” -The assessment process for diagnosis typically encompasses the use of a series of instruments and strategies to identify a client’s problem areas that need to be targeted for intervention.   Intervention and Planning -involves deciding on a course of action that facilitates client change and helps improve the client’s outcome. -the purpose of assessment is to gather information to determine the most effective interventions that address and resolve the client’s specific areas of concern.  Progress and Outcome Evaluation -In monitoring a client’s progress, counselors can determine if the interventions are positively impacting the client. -If an intervention is having no positive effects, counselors may re-evaluate the client and make new intervention plans. -When an intervention program is completed, counselors may conduct an outcome evaluation.  Competencies required for the Assessment CLINICAL INTERVIEW GENERAL PRINCIPLES  Agreement as to Process - At the beginning of the interview the interviewer should introduce himself or herself and, depending on the circumstances, may need to identify why he or she is speaking with the patient. (build rapport) -Consent to proceed with the interview should be obtained and the nature of the interaction and the approximate amount of time for the interview should be stated. - A crucial issue is whether the client is, directly or indirectly, seeking the evaluation on a voluntary basis or has been brought involuntarily for the assessment. This should be established before the interview begins, and this information will guide the interviewer especially in the early stages of the process.  Privacy and Confidentiality - Generally, at the beginning, the interviewer should indicate that the content of the session(s) will remain confidential EXCEPT for what needs to be shared with the referring physician or treatment team. YOU SHOULD ALSO DISCUSS THE LIMITATIONS OF COFIDENTIALITY especially when there is potential harm poses to the public or the client itself. - Some evaluations, including forensic and disability evaluations, are less confidential and what is discussed may be shared with others.  Respect and Consideration - the client must be treated with respect, and the interviewer should be considerate of the circumstances of the client’s condition. - The skilled interviewer is aware of these potential issues( stigma of mental illness and misconceptions about mental health) and interacts in a manner to decrease, or at least not increase, the distress. The success of the initial interview will often depend on the professional’s ability to allay excessive anxiety.  Rapport/Empathy - rapport -defined as the harmonious responsiveness of the therapist to the client and the client to the therapist. - It is important that patients increasingly feel that the evaluation is a joint effort and that the psychiatrist/psychologist is truly interested in their story. - Empathy is understanding what the client is thinking and feeling and it occurs when the psychiatrist/psychologist is able to put himself or herself in the client's place while at the same time maintaining objectivity. - requires an appreciation of many issues in the client’s life. - Empathic interventions (“That must have been very difficult for you” or “I’m beginning to understand how awful that felt”) further increase the rapport.  Safety and Comfort - Clients who are psychotic or confused might feel threatened and need reassurance about their safety. It's important to both verbally and visibly assure them that there is enough staff to manage any potential issues and ensure their well-being. - If a client becomes more agitated or threatening, the interview should be shortened or ended quickly. After assessing safety, which can often be done rapidly, the interviewer should check on the client’s comfort and remain attentive to it throughout the interview.   Initiation of the Interview - The client is greeted in the waiting room by the interviewer who, with a friendly face, introduces himself or herself, extends a hand, and, if the client reciprocates, gives a firm handshake. If the client does not extend his or her hand, it is probably best not to comment at that point but warmly indicate the way to the interview room. - if the client has a coat, the interviewer can offer to take the coat and hang it up. -interviewer indicate where the client can sit. - A brief pause can be helpful as there may be something the client wants to say immediately. - inquire client how should they be addressed according to their preference. -ask “what has led to your being here?” (diri nimo mabal.an if ang client is gi REFER ba siya or WALK IN)  Open-ended Questions -Open-ended questions identify an area but provide minimal structure as to how to respond. A typical open-ended question is, “Tell me about your pain.” -transition to open-ended ques to CLOSE-ENDED QUES (yes or no answers) until a specific area is well described. -Use CLOSE-ENDED QUESTIONS if the data is exhausted(meaning you already got all the information that is needed to be obtained) para clarifications nalang baaa hays nimo oi TECHNIQUES  Reinforcement - A brief phrase such as “I see,” “Go on,” “Yes,” “Tell me more,” “Hmm,” or “Uh-huh” all convey the interviewer’s interest in the client continuing. It is important that these phrases fit naturally into the dialogue.  Reflection - By using the client's words, the psychiatrist indicates that he or she has heard what the client is saying and conveys an interest in hearing more. - Client: I’m at my wit’s end. I’m as depressed as ever. I keep trying to change my life and nothing works. I try communicating better, I change my job, I change my looks. I even take antidepressants, but nothing helps.  Response:: You feel frustrated because you try making all of these changes and thing are not any better  Summarizing - it is helpful to summarize what has been identified about a certain topic. - provides the opportunity for the client to clarify or modify the interviewer’s understanding and possibly add new material. -concluding the data to clarify the responses that you have. *point highlights ̶ problem/areas o concern  Education - At times in the interview it is helpful for the interviewer to educate the client about the interview process.  Reassurance - often appropriate and helpful to provide reassurance to the client. * EXAMPLE: Providing accurate information about the typical progression of an illness can help reduce anxiety, encourage ongoing discussion about the illness, and strengthen the client's commitment to continuing treatment.  Encouragement - receiving encouragement can facilitate their engagement.  Acknowledgement of Emotions - It is important for the interviewer to acknowledge the expression of emotion by the client. This frequently leads to the patient sharing more feelings and being relieved that he or she can do so. - If the display of the emotion is clear (e.g., patient openly crying), then it is not helpful to comment directly on the expression of the emotion. - It is better to comment on the associated feelings.  Humor - At times the client may make a humorous comment or tell a brief joke. It can be very helpful if the interviewer smiles, laughs, or even, when appropriate, add another punch line. - sharing of humor can decrease tension and anxiety and reinforce the interviewer’s genuineness.  Silence - Careful use of silence can facilitate the progression of the interview. The client may need time to think about what has been said or to experience a feeling that has arisen in the interview. -enables client to reflect in his/her feelings  -only in a short time span (seconds- 1min) ̶ initiate conversation again and bring the client back on their focus NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATIONS In effective interviews, nonverbal cues play a crucial role. Actions such as nodding, leaning toward the client, adopting an open posture, moving the chair closer, putting down distracting items like pens and folders, and using attentive facial expressions show that the interviewer is concerned, actively listening, and engaged in the conversation. While nonverbal interventions can be very beneficial, they should be used appropriately. Overdoing or exaggerating these actions—such as excessive or constant nodding—can be counterproductive and may create a stereotypical impression of an unthinking, repetitive response. It's important for the interviewer to balance these cues with genuine engagement and attentiveness EXPANDING INTERVIEWS  Clarifying - “So, if I understand correctly, you're saying that...” “Did I hear you correctly when you said...”  Association - explore other areas that are related to a symptom that should be explored. - Also, experiences that are temporarily related may be investigated.  Leading - Often, continuing the story can be facilitated by asking a “what,” “when,” “where,” or “who” question. Sometimes the psychiatrist/psychologist may suggest or ask about something that has not been introduced by the client but that the interviewer surmises may be relevant. -questions that will lead a client to open up other areas that are related to the presenting concerns.  Probing - Gently encouraging the client to talk more about this issue may be quite productive. - EXAMPLES: Can you elaborate on that point? What are your concerns about...? What is the underlying reason for...?   Transitions - means moving to a different area of the interview and a bridge statement is useful.  Redirecting - can be used when the patient changes the topic or when the client continues to focus on a non productive or well-covered area. -EXAMPLE: "I appreciate the depth of your response. Let's circle back to that point later. For now, could you discuss the challenges you are experiencing?" OBSTRUCTIVE INTERVENTIONS (the no no’s in conducting interviews/assessment)  Close-Ended Questions (yes or no answers) - A series of closed-ended questions early in the interview can retard the natural flow of the client’s story and reinforces the client giving one word or brief answers with little or no elaboration. -not advisable to use often daw because the answer is not enough (saan paba ako nagkulang?:( hindi ko mawari kung ano paba ang hindi ko naibigay)  Compound Questions - Some questions are difficult for clients to respond to because more than one answer is being sought. (very bawal daghan pangutana, wa pagani natubag ang isa ka question naa napud questions? Hays so not very demure)  Why Questions - “why” questions are often nonproductive. Very often the answer to that question is one of the reasons that the client has sought help.  Judgmental Questions or Statements - nonproductive for the issue at hand; inhibit the patient from sharing even more private or sensitive material. (malamang kinsa man daw ganahan mo share pa ug padayon if judger ka? Hays #hartbroccane)  Minimizing Client’s Concerns - can be counterproductive in that rather than being reassured, the patient may feel that the psychiatrist does not understand what he or she is trying to express. It  is much more productive to explore the concern EXAMPLE: saying that the problem of the client is not that big of a deal “sus gamay raman ng problemaha” #hurtful  Premature Advice - Advice given too early is often bad advice because the interviewer does not yet know all of the variables. Also it can preempt the client from arriving at a plan for himself or herself. -we don’t give advices ̶ we provide choices, alternatives, and recommendations that we think would help the client ̶ the client will still decide whether to follow or not your recommendations (know that the client is naay sariling decision-making, autonomy baaa hays)  Premature Interpretation - Even if it is accurate, a premature interpretation can be counterproductive as the client may respond defensively and feel misunderstood. -bawal imong personal feelings/views maka influence saimong interpretations sa data about your client  Transitions - Some transitions are too abrupt and may interrupt important issues that the client is discussing. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION -The interviewer that repeatedly looks at a watch, turns away from the client, yawns, or refreshes the computer screen conveys boredom, disinterest, or annoyance. Just as reinforcing nonverbal communications can be powerful facilitators of a good interview, these obstructive actions can quickly shatter an interview and undermine the therapeutic relationship. CLOSING OF INTERVIEW “I’ve asked you a lot of questions today. Are there any other questions you’d like to ask me at this point?” If this interview was to be a single evaluative session, then a SUMMARY of the diagnosis and options for treatment should generally be shared with the client (exceptions may be a disability or forensic evaluation for which it was established at the outset that a report would be made to the referring entity). If the client was referred by a primary care physician, then the psychiatrist/psychologist also indicates that he or she will communicate with the primary care physician and share the findings and recommendations. If this was not to be a single session and the client will be seen again, then the interviewer may indicate that he or she and the client can work further on the treatment plan in the next session. A mutually agreed upon time is arrived at and the client is escorted to the door. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century 2200 B.C.E - It is believed that tests and testing programs first came into being in China - Testing was instituted as a means of selecting who, of many applicants, would obtain government jobs. - The content of the examination changed over time and with the cultural expectations of the day—as well as with the values of the ruling dynasty. - In general, the tests examined proficiency in subjects like music, archery, horsemanship, writing, and arithmetic, as well as agriculture, geography, civil law, and military strategy. - Knowledge of and skill in the rites and ceremonies of public and social life were also evaluated. Song (or Sung) dynasty - 960 to 1279 C.E., tests emphasized knowledge of classical literature. Test Takers who demonstrated their command of the classics were perceived as having acquired the wisdom of the past and were therefore entitled to a government position. During some dynasties, testing was virtually suspended and government positions were given to family members or friends, or simply sold. In dynasties with state-sponsored examinations for official positions (referred to as imperial examination), the privileges of making the grade varied. During some periods, those who passed the examination were entitled not only to a government job but also to wear special garb; this entitled them to be accorded special courtesies by anyone they happened to meet. In some dynasties, passing the examinations could result in exemption from taxes. Passing the examination might even exempt one from government-sponsored interrogation by torture if the individual was suspected of committing a crime. Ancient Greco-Roman writings - writings indicative of attempts to categorize people in terms of personality types. - Such categorizations typically included reference to an overabundance or deficiency in some bodily fluid (such as blood or phlegm) as a factor believed to influence personality. (dafak) Middle Ages  - a question of critical importance was “Who is in league with the Devil?” and various measurement procedures were devised to address this question. Renaissance - Psychological assessment in the modern sense began to emerge. - By the eighteenth century, Christian von Wolff (1732, 1734) had anticipated psychology as a science and psychological measurement as a specialty within that science. 1859 - On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection by Charles Darwin - Darwin argued that chance variation in species would be selected or rejected by nature according to adaptivity and survival value. - further argued that humans had descended from the ape as a result of such chance genetic variations. - the notion of an evolutionary link between human beings and animals conferred a new scientific respectability on experimentation with animals. - raised - questions about how animals and humans compare with respect to states of consciousness— questions that would beg for answers in laboratories of future behavioral scientists. 1869 - Francis Galton in the course of his efforts to explore and quantify individual differences between people - became an extremely influential contributor to the field of measurement aspired to classify people “according to their natural gifts” and to ascertain their “deviation from an average” - Galton would be credited with devising or contributing to the development of many contemporary tools of psychological assessment, including questionnaires, rating scales, and self-report inventories. Galton’s initial work on heredity was done with sweet peas, - there tended to be fewer variations among the peas in a single pod. - From heredity in peas, Galton’s interest turned to heredity in humans and various ways of measuring aspects of people and their abilities. - Galton pioneered the use of a statistical concept central to psychological experimentation and testing: the coefficient of correlation - Karl Pearson developed the product-moment correlation technique (1896) , its roots can be traced directly to the work of Galton 1884  - Galton displayed his Anthropometric Laboratory where for a few pence you could be measured on variables such as height (standing), height (sitting), arm span, weight, breathing capacity, strength of pull, strength of squeeze, swiftness of blow, keenness of sight, memory of form, discrimination of color, and steadiness of hand. 1879 - first experimental psychology laboratory, founded at the University of Leipzig in Germany by Wilhelm Max Wundt - Wundt and his students tried to formulate a general description of human abilities with respect to variables such as reaction time, perception, and attention span. - Wundt focused on how people were similar, not different. - The objective is to ensure that any observed differences in performance are indeed due to differences between the people being measured and not to any extraneous variables. 1890 - James Mckeen Catell coined the term mental test when he returned to the University of Pennsylvania - He completed a doctoral dissertation that dealt with individual differences—specifically, individual differences in reaction time. - At Cambridge, Cattell came in contact with Galton, whom he later described as “the greatest man I have known” - Over the next 26 years, he not only trained many psychologists but also founded a number of publications (such as the Psychological Review, Science, and American Men of Science). Charles Spearman - Spearman is credited with originating the concept of test reliability as well as building the mathematical framework for the statistical technique of factor analysis. Victor Henri - Frenchman who would collaborate with Alfred Binet on papers suggesting how mental tests could be used to measure higher mental processes Emil Kraepelin - Kraepelin was an early experimenter with the word association technique as a formal test Lightner Witmer - received his Ph.D. from Leipzig and went on to succeed Cattell as director of the psychology laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania. - has been cited as the “little-known founder of clinical psychology” - owing at least in part to his being challenged to treat a “chronic bad speller” in March of 1896 - Later that year Witmer founded the first psychological clinic in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania.  - In 1907 Witmer founded the journal Psychological Clinic. The first article in that journal was entitled “Clinical Psychology” The Twentieth Century Early 1900s - the birth of the first formal tests of intelligence. - These were tests that were useful for reasons readily understandable to anyone who had school-age children. - It all began with a single test designed for use with young Paris pupils. (Alfred Binet??) ★ The measurement of intelligence - As early as 1895, Alfred Binet (1857–1911) and his colleague Victor Henri published several articles in which they argued for the measurement of abilities such as memory and social comprehension. - 1905, Binet and collaborator Theodore Simon published a 30-item “measuring scale of intelligence” designed to help identify Paris schoolchildren with intellectual disability - Before long, psychological tests were being used with regularity in such diverse settings as schools, hospitals, clinics, courts, reformatories, and prisons 1939 - David Wechsler, a clinical psychologist at Bellevue Hospital in New York City, introduced a test designed to measure adult intelligence. - For Wechsler, intelligence was “the aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” - Originally christened the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale, the test was subsequently revised and renamed the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). - versions of Wechsler’s test have been published that extend the age range of test takers from early childhood through senior adulthood. Group intelligence test - intelligence test devised by Binet - came into being in the United States in response to the military’s need for an efficient method of screening the intellectual ability of World War I recruits. - This same need again became urgent as the United States prepared for entry into World War II. - Psychologists would again be called upon by the government service to develop group tests, administer them to recruits, and interpret the test data. ★ The measurement of personality  - A governmental Committee on Emotional Fitness chaired by psychologist Robert S. Woodworth was assigned the task of developing a measure of adjustment and emotional stability that could be administered quickly and efficiently to groups of recruits. - The committee developed several experimental versions of what were, in essence, paper-and- pencil psychiatric interviews. To disguise the true purpose of one such test, the questionnaire was labeled as a “Personal Data Sheet.” Draftees and volunteers were asked to indicate yes or no to a series of questions that probed for the existence of various kinds of psychopathology. For example, one of the test questions was “Are you troubled with the idea that people are watching you on the street?” The Personal Data Sheet developed by Woodworth and his colleagues never went beyond the experimental stages, for the treaty of peace rendered the development of this and other tests less urgent. Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory - After the war, Woodworth developed a personality test for civilian use that was based on the Personal Data Sheet. - This instrument was the first widely used self-report measure of personality Self-report - refers to a process whereby assessees themselves supply assessment-related information by responding to questions, keeping a diary, or self-monitoring thoughts or behaviors. - have both advantages and disadvantages. respondents are arguably the best-qualified people to provide answers about themselves. However, there are also compelling arguments against respondents supplying such information. For example, respondents may have poor insight into themselves. People might honestly believe some things about themselves that in reality are not true. Some respondents are unwilling to reveal anything about themselves that is very personal or that could put them in a negative light. Projective test - One such method or approach to personality assessment came to be described as projective in nature. - is one in which an individual is assumed to “project” onto some ambiguous stimulus his or her own unique needs, fears, hopes, and motivation. - The ambiguous stimulus might be an inkblot, a drawing, a photograph, or something else.  ➔ Perhaps the best known of all projective tests is the Rorschach, a series of inkblots developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach. ➔ The use of pictures as projective stimuli was popularized in the late 1930s by Henry A. Murray, Christiana D. Morgan, and their colleagues at the Harvard Psychological Clinic. ➔ When pictures or photos are used as projective stimuli, respondents are typically asked to tell a story about the picture they are shown. ★ The academic and applied traditions - the development of psychological measurement can be traced along two distinct threads: the academic and the applied. - In the tradition of Galton, Wundt, and other scholars, researchers at universities throughout the world use the tools of assessment to help advance knowledge and understanding of human and animal behavior. - an applied tradition, one that dates at least back to ancient China and the examinations developed there to help select applicants for various positions on the basis of merit. ➔ Today, society relies on the tools of psychological assessment to help answer important questions. Who is best for this job? What class should this child be placed in? Who is competent to stand trial? Tests and other tools of assessment, when used in a competent manner, can help provide answers. ➔ Contemporary test users hold a keen appreciation for the role of culture in the human experience. So, whether in academic or applied settings, assessment professionals recognize the need for cultural sensitivity in the development and use of the tools of psychological assessment. In what follows, we briefly overview some of the issues that such cultural sensitivity entails. LEGAL/ ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Laws and Ethics Defined  Laws- are rules that individuals must obey for the good of the society as a whole ̶ or rules thought to be for the good of society as a whole  Ethics- a body of principle of right, proper, or good conduct.  Code of professional ethics is recognized and accepted by members of a profession, it defines the standard of care expected of members of that profession Laws in Relation to Psychology Field  RA 10029 (Psychology Act of 2009) This Act establishes the Professional Regulatory Board of Psychology, which is responsible for overseeing the licensure and professional standards of psychologists and psychometricians. outlines the specific educational and professional qualifications required for practitioners and defines their roles and responsibilities within various areas of specialization, such as clinical and industrial- organizational psychology.  RA 11036 Mental Health Act focuses on promoting mental health through the integration of services into primary health care systems and the implementation of national and local mental health policies. The Act emphasizes a rights-based approach, ensuring that individuals with mental health conditions receive accessible, affordable, and quality care. It protects patients' rights, including informed consent, privacy, and protection from discrimination. RA 11036 also supports the training and development of mental health professionals and establishes guidelines for crisis intervention and emergency mental health services. Ethics (PAP Code of Ethics) KAMO NAY BAHALA BASA SA 4 PRINCIPLES SA CODE OF ETHICS KAY GI KAPOY NAKOOO!! THANK YOU AND KAMSAMII INFORMED CONSENT GOALS; ▪ Understandable; informed the client ▪ Use terminologies that is comprehensible to the client ▪ Collaborative ▪ Entails autonomy ▪ Therapeutic relationship ▪ Give education about the whole process of interventions/sessions INCLUSION TO THE INFORMED CONSENT FORM; ▪ Discuss confidentiality and include its limitations ▪ Right of privacy ▪ Nature of the intervention ▪ Fees inclusions (only if the client agrees sa psychotherapy/intervention ▪ Cultural sensitivity ▪ Purpose of the assessment ▪ Background of the client/ individual ▪ Right of autonomy (can decide whether to withdraw or not) 3 CONDITIONS THAT SHOULD BE MET TO MAKE THE CONSENT VALID; ▪ The content must be understood by the client ▪ Voluntarily ̶ not forced to sign, with all the willingness of the client. ▪ Client must be competent to give consent (clients have the cognitive capacity to make informed decisions about their therapy) HOW DO WE COMMUNICATE THE PROCESS OF INFORMED CONSENT IN TERMS OF ASSESSMENT ▪ Use language that is easily understandable ▪ Seek permission to legalize guardian/authorized person (only if the client is minor, and not capable of decision-making) ▪ Documentation should be printed and secured in a place away from irrelevant personnel about the case of the client. ▪ Supervise the results (monitor) OF TEST AND TESTING Some Assumptions About Psychological Testing and Assessment (7 Assumptions) Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist ▪ A trait has been defined as “any distinguishable, relatively enduring way in which one individual varies from another” ▪ States also distinguish one person from another but are relatively less enduring -temporary Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States Can Be Quantified and Measured ▪ Once it’s acknowledged that psychological traits and states do exist, the specific traits and states to be measured and quantified need to be carefully defined. Test developers and researchers, much like people  in general, have many different ways of looking at and defining the same phenomenon. ▪ QUANTIFY-measure or judge the size or amount of something ▪ The test score is presumed to represent the strength of the targeted ability or trait or state and is frequently based on cumulative scoring Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related Behavior ▪ Nay nakita na other aspects na dili nimo Makita sa test-related behavior ▪ Patterns of answers to true-false questions on one widely used test of personality are used in decision-making regarding mental disorders. ▪ The task in some tests mimics the actual behaviors that the test users is attempting to understand. The obtained sample of behavior is typically used to make predictions about future behavior. Assumption 4: All test have limits and Imperfections  Competent test users understand and appreciate the limitations of the tests they use as well as how those limitations might be compensated for data from other sources.  We use battery of test to explore more, and to get what you wanted to look for. Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error Are Part of the Assessment Process  Error traditionally refers to something more than expected; it is actually a component of the measurement process. More specifically, error refers to a long-standing assumption that factors other than what a test attempts to measure will influence performance on the test.  Error variance: the component of a test score attributable to to sources other that the trait or ability measured; the contributing factor that contributes to how the client reacts or do something (the person itself, the environment, temperature, etc) Assumption 6: Unfair and biased assessment procedures can be identified and reformed  Decades of court challenges to various tests and testing programs have sensitized test developers and users to the societal demand for fair tests used in a fair manner. Today, all major test publishers strive to develop instruments that are fair when used in strict accordance with guidelines in the test manual. (non-verbal test are established to ensure fairness)  Test tools are just like other tools, they can be used properly or improperly.  Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment offer powerful benefits to society  Considering the many critical decisions that are based on testing and assessment procedures, we can readily appreciate the need for test, especially good tests. What’s a “Good Test”? Reliability- consistency and stability of a measurement tool Validity- measure what it supposed to measure Utility- practicality or usefulness of test Norms- process in test construction, group of people Norm Reference Testing Assessment – method of evaluation - derive meaning from test scores - Ex. Test Developers created an intelligence test to shs, to take the test from 15-21 y.o - compared scores to reference group Normative Sampling - standardizing a test to a group of people representing age range, test created will be utilize to chosen people that meet the standard -group of people whose performance on a particular test is analyzed for reference in evaluating the performance of individual testtakers Normative data- where your performance belong, interpret results Sampling to Develop Norms standardization or test standardization  The process of administering a test to a representative sample of testtakers for the purpose of establishing norms  a test is said to be standardized when it has clearly specified procedures for administration and scoring, typically including normative data  Sampling - a portion of the universe of people deemed to be representative of the whole population Stratified sampling- group; cluster Purposive sampling- represent the population (gi tuyo nimo why kana na population) Incidental sampling- convenient or available for use Types of norms Percentile- score of people in a test; an expression of the percentage of people whose score on a test or measure falls below a particular raw score Age norms- average performance of different samples; Also known as age-equivalent scores, age norms indicate the average performance of different samples of testtakers who were at various ages at the time the test was administered. Grade norms- performance of test taker in given school test; designed to indicate the average test performance of test takers in a given school grade. Subgroup and local norms- SUBGROUP -A normative sample can be segmented by any of the criteria initially used in selecting subjects for the sample LOCAL NORMS- provide normative information with respect to the local population’s performance\ on some test. CRITERION- REFERENCED- referenced testing and assessment may be defined as a method of evaluation and a way of deriving meaning from test scores by evaluating an individual’s score with reference to a set standard NORM-REFERENCED- one's performance is compared to the scores of others in a relevant reference group- the norm group RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, AND UTILITY Reliability- The extent to which a test measures something consistently -the degree of accuracy and stability of a measurement tool Error variance- from irrelevant, random sources Sources of error Ex. test administrator, proctor, environment like air conditioned room (temperature) Test Retest- The same test is given twice with time interval between testings - stability (coefficient) - memory and practice effect, change over time (problem Parallel/Alternate Test- two different form of test that measure the same construct; Equivalent tests are given with time between testings - equivalence & stability (coefficient) - difficult to develop, may reflect change in behavior overtime (problem) - means and variances (equal) - statistics - set A, set B Internal Consistency – one test given at one time only -divided into split half (odd-even) -if items as homogenous (if test created measures one construct) - equivalence & internal consistency (coefficient) - shortened forms, estimate speeded test; hard to compute by hand (problem) Factors Affecting Reliability a.) Length increases reliability – more items; the longer the test, the more reliable it will be b.) heterogeneity increases reliability- variability of group tested ; If everything else is the same, higher reliability coefficient will be found from groups which vary more in ability. c.) shorter time, high reliability – short interval like for test retest (items are fresh in mind) d.) irregularities reduce reliability – Irregular testing conditions tend to lower reliability coefficients. Reliability Coefficients 1. r from.00 to.20 denotes indifferent or negligible relationship 2. r from.20 to.40 denotes low correlation; present but slight 3. r from.40 to.40 denotes substantial or marked relationship 4. r from.70 to.00 denotes high to very high relationship Validity - gathering and evaluating evidence; degree to which a test measures that which is supposed to measure. Content – match w/ the set goal & objectives - items measure what it want to measure - compare test blueprint with school/program objective - use panel to check items made - achievement test, licensing exam, aptitude test Criterion Concurrent – set of standards to meet, have basis -updating/ creating a new test with a reference to an existing test - relationship between test - happen at the same time, checking the criteria that is set, finding correlate each other - personality test, intelligence test -validating criterion - creating a whole new test to correlate existing test, revision *Test A reference Test B -Convergent – existing standardized test Criterion Predictive – criterion obtain in the future (result) - ex. Recovery of a client in the future - depending on the ability when taking test  False positive (akala mo lang meron, pero WALA! WALA!)  False negative (akala mo lang wala, pero MERON! MERON!)   Incremental Validity- additional predictor - additional test that is being added to contribute the validity  Base rate- reference itself of particular trait/behavior whether it hit/miss  hit rate (measured the prediction of test)  miss rate (fail to measure particular ability that tries to measure) Construct – To determine whether a construct exists ; understands traits/concepts that make up set of scores - factor analysis (exploratory, confirmatory) - Intelligence test, Aptitude test, Personality Test Evidence of construct Validity - homogenous ̶ measuring a single construct - obtained from distinct theory (like OCEAN, MBTI) - test scores increase or decrease as a function of age, the passage of time, or an experimental manipulation as theoretically predicted; - test scores obtained after some event or the mere passage of time (or, posttest scores) differ from pretest scores as theoretically predicted; - test scores correlate with scores on other tests in accordance with what would be predicted from a theory that covers the manifestation of the construct in question. Test Fairness  Test Bias  Rating Error Leniency- taas muhatag ug grado na prof Severity – very low/very high, gibagsak bisag dili deserve Central tendency – middle average pirme sa evaluation Halo effect – you see someone that can’t do anything wrong Horn effect – opposite of halo effect FACTORS THAT AFFECTS A TEST’S UTILITY Psychometric soundness – valid and reliable Cost – disadvantage, losses, or expenses in both economic and noneconomic term Benefits – cost, profits, gains, or advantages in both economic and noneconomic terms. Utility Utility analysis – a family of techniques that entail a cost-benefit analysis designed to yield information - is preferable to other training program - revised the program to be more appealing