Introduction to Psychological Assessment PDF

LESSON 1 - ITEMS are specific stimuli to which a person responds overtly – this response can be scored or evaluated INTRODUCTION TO (e.g., classified, grad...

LESSON 1 - ITEMS are specific stimuli to which a person responds overtly – this response can be scored or evaluated INTRODUCTION TO (e.g., classified, graded on a scale, counted, etc.) PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT o As psychological and educational tests are made up of items – the data they produce are explicit, INTRODUCTION and hence subject to scientific inquiry - All fields of human endeavor use measurement in o Simply put, items are specific questions or some form – and each field has its own set of problems that make up a test measuring tools and units - PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS are sets of items that are - As a student of psychological measurement, you need designed to measure characteristics of human beings a working familiarity with some of the commonly used – that pertain to behavior units of measure in psychology – as well as some o OVERT behavior is an individual’s observable knowledge of many measuring tools employed activity – some attempt to measure the extent to o Good helpers take time to understand the which someone might engage in or “emit” said situation before helping a person overt behavior; while some others might measure o Great helpers make time to understand the how much a person has previously engaged in it person who needs help in the first place o Behavior can also be COVERT – ones that take place within the individual, and cannot directly be - Psychological assessment applies scientific rigor to observed. Feelings and thoughts are examples the gentle art of understanding people – before moving o Such tests aim to measure past or current on to helping them behavior – and some also attempt to predict o It encompasses a variety of methods from tests, behavior that has yet to occur in the future questionnaires, observations, interviews, and case analyses - SCORES on tests may be related to TRAITS – enduring characteristics or tendencies to respond in a - Tests have been used by educators since ancient certain manner. They may also be related to STATES times, but psychological tests were developed only – specific conditions or statuses of individuals after psychology emerged as a formal scientific discipline in the late 1800s - SCALES are utilized by psychologists to deal with o Whereas educational testing tells us how much a problems of interpretation person has learned, psychological assessment o For example – what does it mean when someone tells us what can be learned about a person gets 75 items correct on a 100-item test? o The experience of being closely listened to and o Scales relate raw scores on test items to some deeply understood is itself a great comfort to defined theoretical or empirical distribution many individuals who have sought the help of psychological assessment providers TYPES OF TESTING - Just as there are many types of behavior, so too are BASIC CONCEPTS IN TESTING there types of tests - TESTS are measurement devices or techniques used to quantify behavior – or aid in the understanding and - Those that can be given to only one person at a time prediction of behavior are known as INDIVIDUAL TESTS, whereas those o As you well know, the test your instructor gives that can be administered to more than one person at a may not measure your full understanding of the time by a single examiner are GROUP TESTS material. This is because a test measures only a sample of behavior – and error is always - One can categorize tests according to type of behavior associated with the sampling process they measure – mainly between ABILITY and o Test scores are not perfect measures of a PERSONALITY tests behavior or characteristic – but they do add significantly to the prediction process  ABILITY TESTS TESTING AND ASSESSMENT What a person can do - TESTING refers to everything from the administration Measures skills in terms of speed, accuracy, or of a test (testing in progress) to interpretation of test both (capacity or potential) scores (testing indicated that…) Achievement o During World War I, the term “testing” aptly Measures previous learning Tests described the group screening of thousands of Aptitude Measures potential for acquiring a military recruits – known by professionals and Tests specific skill laypeople alike Measures potential to solve o It was only by World War II, however, that a Intelligence problems, adapt to change semantic distinction was made – between testing Tests circumstances, and profit from and “assessment” experience PERSONALITY TESTS - Military, clinical, educational, and industrial settings What a person typically does are but a few of the many contexts that entail behavioral observation and active integration by Measures typical behavior – traits, temperaments, assessors of test scores dispositions – that do not require special skill or o In contrast to testing, ASSESSMENT ability acknowledges that tests are only one type of tool Provides a self-report statement to used by professional assessors – and that the Objective which a person responds in a value of a test (or any tool of assessment) is Tests structured manner (e.g., intimately linked to the knowledge, skill, and “True/False” or “Yes/No”) experience of the assessor Provides an ambiguous test o Such semantic distinction is blurred in everyday stimulus – response requirements conversation – even in some published Projective are unclear. Assumes that one’s references on psychological testing Techniques interpretation of ambiguous stimuli o Still, the distinction is important – and society is reflects their unique characteristics best served by clear definitions of and differentiations between the two terms (and - PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING refers to all possible related terms, like psychological test user and uses, applications, and underlying concepts of psychological assessor) psychological and educational tests o Especially with emerging trends of non- o The main use is to evaluate individual differences psychology professions seeking to make use of or variations among individuals psychological tests, it is imperative that we o Tests assume that differences on the test reflect emphasize the deeper education, training, and actual differences among individuals skill that is required for assessment – as opposed o Thus, the most important purpose of testing is to to testing alone differentiate among those taking the tests - PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING, therefore, is the measurement of psychology-related variables by means of devices or procedures – designed to obtain a sample of behavior. Achieved through administering, scoring, and interpreting psychological tests - PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT, on the other hand, is the gathering and integration of psychology- related data for the purpose of making a psychological evaluation – that is accomplished through the use of varied tools such as tests, interviews, case studies, behavioral observations, and specially designed apparatuses and measurement procedures  DIMENSION TESTING ASSESSMENT - To answer a referral question - To obtain some gauge, usually numerical, - To solve a problem Objective with regard to an ability or attribute - To arrive at a decision through the use of tools of evaluation - May be conducted individually, or in group settings - Assessment is individualized - After administration, tester adds up “the - Focuses on how an individual processes Process number of correct answers or number of experiences – rather than simply the results of said certain responses – with little regard for the processing how or mechanics of such content - Tester is not key to the process - The assessor is key to the process of selecting tests Role of - One tester may be substituted for another and/or other tools of evaluation Evaluator tester without appreciably affecting the - In the absence of the assessor, conclusions drawn evaluation from the entire evaluation will be affected - Testing requires technician-like skills in - Assessment requires an educated selection of tools Skill of administering and scoring a test – as well as of evaluation, skill in evaluation, and thoughtful Evaluator in interpreting the test result organization and integration of data - Assessment entails a logical problem-solving - Testing yields a test score – or a series of Outcome approach – that brings to bear many sources of data test scores designed to shed light on a referral question SPECIFICS OF ASSESSMENT PROCESS OF ASSESSMENT VARIETIES OF ASSESSMENT - Different assessors approach the task of assessment - The term assessment can be modified in a seemingly in different ways endless number of ways – each such modification o In traditional psychological assessment – referring to a particular variety or area of assessment assessment typically follows the flow of examiner o Sometimes, the meaning of the specialty area explaining results, summarizing case can be readily discerned just from the word or conceptualizations, and offering term that modifies it (e.g., educational recommendations for action or intervention assessment, employment assessment, clinical o In collaborative psychological assessment – assessment, etc.) the assessor and assessee work as “partners” o But what springs to mind with less common from initial contact through final feedback. Here, assessment terminologies? the assessor is likely to encourage collaboration § Retrospective assessment is the use of by asking questions like “After this assessment is evaluative tools to draw conclusions about finished, what would you like to know – that you psychological aspects of a person as they do not know already?” existed at some point in time – prior to the o In therapeutic psychological assessment – assessment; regardless if alive or deceased results are not revealed at the end, but shared § Remote assessment refers to the use of immediately so both the assessor and assessee tools of psychological evaluation to gather can co-develop interpretations and make data and draw conclusions about a subject decisions on what questions require further who is not in physical proximity to the person assessment and exploration. In this way, or people administering the assessment therapeutic self-discovery is encouraged as the § Ecological momentary assessment assessment process takes place (as opposed to (EMA) refers to “in the moment” evaluations just at the end of it) of specific problems and related cognitive o In dynamic assessment – an interactive and behavioral variables at the exact time approach of evaluation-intervention-evaluation is and place they occur (e.g., post-traumatic employed – that aims to measure not only stress, substance use, chronic pain, etc.) learning, but “learning how to learn” - In the most general sense, the major processes that comprise the entire psychological assessment are: 1. Clarifying and Evaluating the Referral Question 5. Test Administration, Scoring, and Interpretation 2. Assessment Interviewing 6. Data Integration 3. Hypothesis-Building 7. Psychological Report-Writing 4. Test Selection 8. Feedback Provision TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL DESCRIPTION - TESTS are measuring devices or procedures. Once prefaced with a modifier, it refers to a device or procedure designed to measure a variable related to said modifier - PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS refer to devices or procedures that measure variables related to psychology – such as abilities, aptitudes, intelligence, interests, attitudes, values, personalities - Whereas medical tests might involve the analysis of a sample of blood, tissue, or the like – psychological tests almost always involve the analysis of a SAMPLE OF BEHAVIOR o The behavior sample could range from responses to a pencil-and-paper questionnaire, to verbal responses to questions related to the performance of a task o It could also be elicited by the stimulus of the test itself, or it could be a naturally occurring behavior – then observed by the assessor; either in real time, or at a later time - Psychological tests differ majorly with other tools of assessment in terms of the following: - The subject matter of the test will vary with the focus of the particular test - Even if two psychological tests purporting to measure the same thing (e.g., personality) – they may still Content differ widely in terms of item content - Such difference depends on varied definitions of test developers in terms of what “personality” means – and what is important in terms of measuring it - Pertains to the form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout of test items – as well as to related Format considerations such as time limits - May refer to the form a test is administered – computerized, pencil-and-paper, performance-based, etc. - Some tests are designed for administration on a one-to-one basis – which require an active and knowledgeable test administrator. Some tests may involve demonstration of various kinds of tasks Admin- Test demanded of the assessee – as well as trained observation of an assessee’s performance istration - Alternatively, some tests may not even require the test administrator to be present (especially those designed for group administration) – while the testtakers independently complete the required tasks - Scores are codes or summary statements – usually but not necessarily numerical in nature – that reflects an evaluation of performance on a test, task, interview, or some other sample of behavior - Scoring is the process of assigning such evaluative codes or statements to performance on tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior samples Scoring - In psychological assessment, many different types of scores exist – some result from the simple summing of responses; while some others are derived from more elaborate procedures - Cut scores are reference points – usually numerical – derived by judgement, and used to divide a set of data into two or more classifications (onto which further action or inference will be made). Used in schools (grading), organizations (hiring/promotion), governments (licensing), clinics (diagnoses), etc. - Some tests are self-scored by the testtakers themselves, others scored by computer; and others too require scoring by trained examiners - Most intelligence tests come with test manuals that are explicit – not only about scoring criteria, but also Inter- about the nature of interpretations that can be made from scores pretation - Other tests, like the Rorschach Inkblot Test, are sold with no manual at all. The presumably qualified purchaser buys the stimulus materials – then selects and uses one of many available test guides for administration, scoring, and interpretation - Tests differ with respect to their psychometric soundness – that is, how consistently (reliability), accurately (validity), and usefully (utility) a test measures what it purports to measure Technical - Psychometrics is the science of psychological measurement – related to the terms psychometric Quality (measurement that is psychological in nature; psychometrist (one who administers and scores psychological tests) and psychometrician (ones who develop psychological tests, scales, and measures; may administer, score, and interpret such tests as well)  - In everyday conversation, the word interview conjures images of face-to-face talk. But the interview as a tool of psychological assessment involves more than just talk o If the interview is conducted face-to-face, then the interview is probably taking note of not only the content of what is said – but also the manner of how it is being said. Here, interviews take note of both verbal and nonverbal behavior (e.g., body language, facial expressions, eye contact, resistance, etc.) o Though face-to-face interviews are ideal, it is not always possible. Interviews may be conducted by telephone – and variables such as vocal pitch, speed, disruptions, pauses, and the like may be observed instead o Interviews need not involve verbalized speech – as would be the case in sign language o Interviews may also be conducted via electronic means – such as video interviews, e-mail interviews, and even text interviews Interview - In the broadest sense, interviews are methods of gathering information through direct communication – involving reciprocal exchange o Interviews differ with regard to many variables – such as their purpose, length, and nature o Interviews may be used by psychologists to help make diagnostic, treatment, selection, or other decisions - The popularity of the interview as a data gathering method extends far beyond psychology – as indicated by its pervasive prevalence across the radio, television, and internet. Regardless of the medium through which it is conducted, interviews are always a reciprocal affair – focused more on the quality of information as opposed to its quantity o Such quality depends heavily on the skills of the interviewer – their pacing of interviews, their rapport with interviewees, and their ability to convey genuineness, empathy, and humor - Students and professionals across many different fields keep files of their work products. These products – whether on paper, canvas, film, video, audio, or some other medium – constitute what is called a portfolio o Portfolios are samples of one’s abilities and accomplishments – hence, they can be used as tools of assessment Portfolio o The appeal of portfolio assessment extends to many other fields – including education § In evaluating students’ writing abilities, for example – the best assessment would not be achieved through the administration of a test, but by requesting the student to compile a selection of their writing samples § For instructors’ teaching abilities – lesson plans, visual aids, and published writings may be requested - Case History Data refers to records, transcripts, and other accounts in written, pictorial, or other form – that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other details relevant to the assessee o May include files or excerpts maintained at organizations such as schools, hospitals, employers, religious institutions, criminal justice agencies, etc. o May also include letters and written correspondences thru email, photos, videos, audiotapes, work samples, artwork, doodles, accounts and pictures related to interests and hobbies o In the age of technology, postings on social media such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, etc. are also considered Case History - Case history data is a useful tool in a variety of assessment contexts o In clinical evaluation, for example – case history can shed light on an individual’s past and current adjustment; as well as on events and circumstances that may have contributed to any changes in such adjustment o In neuropsychological assessment – case history provides information on neuropsychological functioning prior to the occurrence of trauma or other event that resulted to current deficit o In educational evaluation – case history provides insight into a student’s current academic or behavioral standing; or even in making judgement for future class placement - Case Studies are illustrative accounts of a person or event that was compiled on the basis of case history data - Behavioral Observation is the monitoring of actions of others or oneself – by visual or electronic means – while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding said actions o Often used as a diagnostic aid in various settings – such as inpatient facilities, behavioral research laboratories, and classrooms o Sometimes, researchers venture outside the confines of clinics, classrooms, workplaces, and laboratories – in Behavioral order to observe behavior of humans in natural settings (i.e., where the behavior is typically expected to occur). Observation This is called naturalistic observation - Behavioral observation is often used as an aid to designing therapeutic intervention – especially within institutional settings such as schools, hospitals, prisons, and group homes  - Role Play is the acting of improvised or partially improvised parts of simulated situations. Role-play Tests are assessment tools wherein assesses are directed to act as if they were in a particular situation o Assessees are then evaluated with regard to their expressed thoughts, emotions, behaviors, abilities, etc. o Role play, of course, is not as useful as “the real thing.” Still, it is used quite extensively – especially in situations wherein it is too time-consuming, expensive, or inconvenient to assess in a real situation - Individuals being evaluated in a corporate, industrial, or military context for managerial or leadership ability may be routinely placed in role-play situations o They may be asked to mediate a hypothetical dispute between personnel at a work site – which could be Role-Play performed with live actors, or computer-generated situations o Outcome measures could be in terms of individual’s ability to resolve conflict, effectiveness of approach, quality of resolution, and duration before resolution transpires - Role play may also be used for various clinical contexts o For interventions with substance users, clinicians may attempt to obtain a baseline measure of substance abuse, craving, or coping skills by administering a role-play test prior to therapeutic intervention o The same test would then be administered again – subsequent to completion of treatment o Role play, therefore, can be used both as a tool of assessment – and a measure of outcome - Computers play a significant role in the contemporary world of assessment – especially in terms of generating simulations. They are also useful in the measurement of variables that were difficult to quantify. The most obvious role computers have as a tool of assessment, however, is in their role within test administration, scoring, and interpretation o As test administrators, computers do much more than replace the “equipment” that was used in the past o Computers can serve as test administrators and scorers alike – deriving test scores and patterns among scores within seconds o Scoring may be done on-site (local processing) or at some central location (central processing) o Test-related data may be sent to and returned from this facility – by means of mail, courier, internet, or even phone line (teleprocessing) o Testtaker performance can range from a mere listing of scores (simple scoring report) to more detailed ones with statistical analyses of performance (extended scoring report) o Numerical or narrative interpretive statements can also be included (interpretive report), which can be utilized Computers as a form of communication between assessment professionals for further decision making (consultative report) o Once multiple sources of data are collected and collated together into a coherent whole, then an integrative report can also be generated by computers o Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT) references the computer’s ability to tailor the test to the testtaker’s ability – or test-taking pattern o Computer-Assisted Psychological Assessment (CAPA) is relevant to the test user, as opposed to the testtaker. An example is Q-Interactive (Pearson Assessments) – which allows test users to administer tests by means of two iPads connected via Bluetooth. As the testtaker takes the assessment, the test administrator may record verbal responses and make written notes – with scoring being immediate as well - The APA Committee on Psychological Tests and Assessment convened to consider a comprehensive list of pros and cons of computer-assisted assessment (Naglieri et al., 2004), but the bottomline was clear – internet testing is just that, testing (not assessment) CONTEXTS OF ASSESSMENT c. Test Takers. Those who are subjected to assessment 1. WHO are the parties in the assessment enterprise? – with variability on factors like test anxiety, a. Test Developers. Those who create tests or other comprehension, cooperativeness, distress, methods of assessment – and publish standards of wakefulness, acquiescence, practice, fabrication, etc. ethical behavior related to issues around test d. Society at Large. Those who benefit the most from construction/evaluation, test administration/use, and attempts at organizing/systematizing human behavior special considerations for minorities – with specific questions and answers to differences b. Test Users. Those who are qualified to have access across human beings varying throughout history to, purchase, and make use of tests – such as e. Other Parties. Organizations, companies, clinicians, counselors, school psychologists, human governmental agencies often act as sponsors for test resource personnel, industrial psychologists, development. Companies may provide services in experimental psychologists, social psychologists. administering, scoring, interpreting, marketing, selling, Controversy exists on which professionals and what distributing tests. Academicians and scientists critically type of training should have access to which tests evaluate tests for psychometric soundness 2. WHAT settings are assessments conducted in? h. Academic. Conducting any sort of research entails a. Educational. Achievement tests evaluate measurement of some kind – and all academicians accomplishment or degree of learning within schools. and scientists who wish to publish must have sound Diagnostic tests help to identify areas of deficit to be knowledge of measurement principles and targeted for intervention. Formal assessments assessment tools typically materialize in the form of grades and report cards. Informal assessments often manifests in the 3. HOW are assessments conducted? form of evaluations related to behavioral functioning a. Before Assessment. b. Clinical. Across public/private/military hospitals, i. Relevance to the Problem. Test users must inpatient/outpatient clinics, private consultations, only select and use test/s that is/are related to the schools, and other institutions – assessment tools are referral problem. Assessors must avoid used to help screen for and/or diagnose behavioral subjecting assessees to irrelevant and/or problems. Often includes batteries of assessment unnecessary procedures tools such as intelligence tests, neuropsychological ii. Appropriateness to the Client. Test users must assessments, personality scales, symptom be sensitive to and mindful of individual inventories, projective techniques, and other differences and details (e.g., age, gender, specialized tools depending on the problem area education, culture, etc.) that might inhibit, impair, c. Counselling. Across schools, prisons, governmental or otherwise influence the assessee’s agencies, or privately owned institutions – performance on the evaluation assessment tools are used to improve the assessee’s iii. Familiarity of the Assessor. Test users must be adjustment, productivity, or some related variable. familiar with all test materials, procedures, Measures of social and academic skills such as protocols, and manuals before administering personality, interest, attitude, and value tests are them some tools a counselor administers iv. Adaptability to Resources. Test users have d. Medical. May be psychiatric in specific (suicide risk, responsibility of ensuring that the testing admission/discharge, medical suitability, diagnosis, condition of the assessee is suitable and prognosis, perceived dangerousness, defense conducive for their testing. Distracting conditions mechanisms, coping styles, therapeutic such as excessive noise, heat, cold, interruption, responsiveness, psychotropic contraindication, etc.); sunlight, crowding, ventilation, etc. must be or medical in general (psychological comorbidities to avoided. In addition to this, sensitivity to time, physical conditions, disease and illness, rehabilitation, location, financial resources, and the like must substance dependence, chronic pain, somatization, also be observed emotional complaints, patient management, treatment v. Validity and Reliability of the Test. Test users planning, terminal illness, surgical evaluation, early must never administer tests that are not intervention, quality of life, etc.) psychometrically sound. As much as possible, e. Legal. May be forensic (application of psychological tests administered must be fit to the population principles within legal settings; legal proceedings, demographic it is conducted upon defense assessment, victim processing, suspect examination, expert witnessing, policy advising, b. During Assessment. diminished capacity, legal insanity, deception i. Trust and Rapport. The working relationship detection, sentencing, custody, parole, etc.); or between the examiner and examinee is crucial to criminal (analysis of criminal thoughts, emotions, assessment. For some, rapport may be achieved motivations, actions, triggers; profiling, interrogation, with a few words of small talk. With others, rehabilitation, prediction, apprehension, etc.) additional information about the nature of the test f. Governmental. Assessment tools may also be used and why it is important for examinees to do their for licensing, certification, and credentialing of best is also helpful. For children, more elaborate professionals. Formal organizations exist to assess techniques (e.g., play) might be necessary to and certify requirements for licensure and establish trust specialization ii. Accommodation. Alternate assessments must g. Industrial. Across both business and military be provided to people with disabilities – which contexts, assessment is used in making decisions for can be done by adapting the test, procedure, or personnel – through the use of achievement, aptitude, situation in order to make it more suitable for interest, motivational, and other tests for employment, assesses with exceptional needs that need to be promotion, termination, or further qualification. Also adjusted to. Can be assessed by considering: the used in engineering products and designing capabilities of the assessee; the purpose of the environments – in relation to human behavior assessment; the meaning attached to scores; and the capabilities of the assessor  c. After Assessment. i. Safeguarding Test Protocols. Test users must ensure that any information provided by testtakers must remain secure and private ii. Writing Up Findings. Test users must collate, synthesize, and convey test results in a clearly understandable fashion iii. Communicating Feedback. Test users must relay findings to all concerned parties involved within the assessment process 4. WHERE does one go for authoritative information about tests? a. Test Catalogues. One of the most readily accessible sources of information regarding tests, as it is distributed directly by the test publisher. Can be accessed via the internet, phone call, or email. Only brief descriptions and technical information are available, however – in order to preserve the security of the test b. Test Manuals. Detailed information concerning the development of a particular test and technical information relating to it should be found here – typically purchasable from the test publisher. For security purposes, publishers require documentation of professional training before filling orders for test manuals c. Professional Books. Many books are written for assessment professionals in order to supplement, reorganize, or enhance information found within test manuals. Often attempts to shed new light on how or why the test may be used for various purposes and populations – and how conclusions or inferences can be derived from the proper use of the test; alongside common errors and cautions in its administration d. Reference Volumes. The Buros Center for Testing provides “one-stop shopping” for a great deal of test- related information. Updated every three years, it lists all commercially available English-language tests in print – providing detailed information for each test listed (test publisher, test author, test purpose, intended population, test administration time) e. Journal Articles. Articles contain reviews of tests, updated or independent studies of its psychometric soundness, or examples of how the instrument was used in either research or applied contexts f. Online Databases. The Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC) of the US Department of Education contains a wealth of resources and news about tests, testing, and assessment. The American Psychological Association (APA) also maintains an online database of psychology-related information across journal articles, book chapters, and doctoral dissertations – the most relevant of which to testing and assessment is PsycTESTS