Learning Psychology Study Notes PDF

**LEARNING** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **LEARNING** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Learning-Definition | The process of gaining kno...

**LEARNING** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **LEARNING** | | +===================================+===================================+ | Learning-Definition | The process of gaining knowledge | | | or skill through studying, | | | practicing, being taught, or | | | experiencing something. It alters | | | the way individuals perceive and | | | react to their environment. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | John B. Watson | Learning influences behavior. | | | Myers (2008) - Humans can adapt | | | to the environment through | | | learning. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Conditions for Learning | Intellectual capacity, readiness, | | | past learning, and motivational | | | factors, as well as quality of | | | learning materials and the social | | | and physical environment. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **INDIVIDUAL VARIABLES** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Intelligence | General ability to understand, | | | think rationally, and adapt to | | | challenges. Involves both general | | | intelligence and specific | | | intelligences like verbal, | | | numerical, and emotional | | | intelligence (EQ). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Motivation | The process that drives | | | goal-oriented behaviors, which | | | can be intrinsic (internal | | | satisfaction) or extrinsic | | | (external rewards). Intrinsic | | | motivation tends to be more | | | effective. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Emotions | Emotional states affect learning. | | | Negative emotions (anxiety) | | | hinder learning, while positive | | | emotions (joy) can enhance focus | | | and memory. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Maturation | Refers to physical and cognitive | | | readiness for learning. | | | Maturation affects the learner's | | | ability to process new | | | information and skills based on | | | their developmental stage | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **TASKS VARIABLES** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Difficulty of Material | Harder materials require more | | | time and concentration to learn | | | but can be learned more rapidly | | | once mastered. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Meaningfulness of Material | Learning is faster when the | | | material is meaningful and | | | connected to the learner\'s | | | personal experiences. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Serial Position Effect | Items presented at the beginning | | | and end of a list are remembered | | | better (primacy and recency | | | effects). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **METHOD VARIABLES** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Active vs. Passive Learning | *Active learning* involves | | | higher-order thinking, | | | self-testing, and personal | | | engagement, while *passive | | | learning* (like listening to | | | lectures) involves less | | | engagement. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Massed vs. Distributed Knowledge | Massed practice involves | | of Results | intensive learning in one block, | | | while distributed practice | | Knowledge of Results | spreads learning over multiple | | | sessions, which is generally more | | | effective. | | | | | | Feedback is essential for | | | learning. Immediate and detailed | | | feedback helps improve responses | | | and motivates continued learning. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Whole vs. Part Learning | The *whole* method teaches | | | material as a whole, while the | | | *part* method breaks it into | | | smaller sections. A flexible | | | combination of both is often most | | | effective. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **LEARNING PERSPECTIVES: | - - | | BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Classical Conditioning: Ivan | Learning through association of a | | Pavlov | neutral stimulus with an | | | unconditioned stimulus to produce | | | a conditioned response (e.g., | | | Pavlov\'s dog salivating to a | | | bell). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Unconditioned Stimulus (US) | A stimulus that naturally | | | triggers a response without prior | | | learning (e.g., food) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neutral Stimulus | A stimulus which initially | | | produces no specific response | | | other than focusing attention | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Conditioned Stimulus | A previously neutral stimulus | | | that, after association with the | | | unconditioned stimulus, elicits a | | | conditioned response (e.g., a | | | bell). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Unconditioned Response | A natural, automatic reaction to | | | an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., | | | salivating to food). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Conditioned Response | A learned response to a | | | conditioned stimulus (e.g., | | | salivating to the sound of a | | | bell). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Contiguity | How close together in time the | | | unconditioned stimulus and | | | conditioned stimulus are | | | presented. Both must occur almost | | | simultaneously for learning to | | | occur | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Contingency | Refers to the degree to which the | | | unconditioned stimulus is | | | consistently presented with the | | | conditioned stimulus | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Extinction | If the conditioned stimulus is | | | repeatedly presented without the | | | unconditioned stimulus, the | | | conditioned response gradually | | | weakens and eventually disappears | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Spontaneous Recovery | After extinction, if the | | | conditioned stimulus is presented | | | again, the conditioned response | | | may reappear temporarily | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Stimulus Generalization | This happens when a conditioned | | | response is triggered by stimuli | | | that are similar to the original | | | conditioned stimulus | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Stimulus Discrimination | Ability to distinguish between | | | the conditioned stimulus and | | | other stimuli that are similar | | | but not identical | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Operant Conditioning: Edward | Learning through consequences; | | Thorndike, | behaviors are strengthened or | | | weakened based on the | | B.F. Skinner | consequences that follow | | | (reinforcement or punishments) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reinforcement | A consequence that increases the | | | likelihood of a behavior | | | repeating. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Positive Reinforcement | Adding something pleasant to | | | encourage a behavior (e.g., | | | giving a reward). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Negative Reinforcement | Removing something unpleasant to | | | encourage a behavior (e.g., | | | stopping an annoying sound when | | | the behavior occurs). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Punishment | Encourages unrepeated behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Positive Punishment | Adding something unpleasant to | | | reduce behavior (e.g., scolding). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Negative Punishment | Removing something pleasant to | | | reduce behavior (e.g., taking | | | away a toy). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Shaping | Gradually reinforcing successive | | | approximations of a desired | | | behavior to guide learning (e.g., | | | teaching a dog a new trick | | | step-by-step). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Stimulus Response | The idea that behavior results | | | from the association between a | | | stimulus (event) and a response | | | (behavior). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF | Focuses on cognitive processes in | | LEARNING** | learning (thought and insight) as | | | key factors in learning, going | | | beyond behavioral conditioning. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Cognitive Map: Edward Chase | Individuals create cognitive maps | | Tolman (1886-1959) | (mental representations) based on | | | environmental features or | | | landmarks to navigate or solve | | | problems and guide behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Latent Learning | Learning that is not immediately | | | evident in behavior but manifests | | | later when there is motivation or | | | a suitable situation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **SOCIAL PERSPECTIVE OF | People learn by observing others | | LEARNING** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Observational Learning/ Vicarious | Humans learn by imitating a model | | Learning: Albert Bandura | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Model | Person or object that is either: | | | eye-catching, credible, captures | | | attention of learner | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Processes for behavior to be | Attention, retention, | | imitated | reproduction, motivation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Attention | Identify important features of | | | the observed behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Retention | Remembering important features of | | | observed behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reproduction | Replication of behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Motivation | Desire to learn/do the behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **MEMORY** **MEMORY** -------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Learning-Definition Learning that has persisted, stored, and retrieved **PROCESSES OF MEMORY:** The process by which new knowledge is initially recorded in the sensory memory (form usable/ system that memory can handle) **ENCODING (Fixation)** The process by which new knowledge is initially recorded in the sensory memory (form usable/ system that memory can handle) Visual Encoding Information encoded through images Acoustic Encoding Information encoded through sounds Semantic Encoding Information encoded due to its meaningfulness Two conditions in which memory is more effective Emotional significance, association to things already known **RETENTION (Storage)** The storing process and type of memory depends on duration and nature of retention (short- term or long-term memory) Forgetting Decrease in retention Theory of decay Loss of information due to it not being used for a long time Interference Key process of forgetting Retroactive Interference New learnings interfere with the recall of earlier learnings Proactive Interference Earlier learnings interfere with the recall of older learnings **RETRIEVAL (Remembering)** Recalling/bringing to mind information stored in the memory, usually stored in long-term memory Recall Retrieving information without any explicit cues or prompts (ex: identification quiz) Recognition Identifying previously learned information when presented with it as a choice (ex: multiple choice quiz) Reintegration The process where memory serves as a trigger to reconstruct an entire complex memory or chain of associations such as details and circumstances of an event (flashbulb memory) Tip of the tongue phenomenon Occurs when you are unable to fully recall a word or information but feel like it is just out of reach and you can almost recall it Retrieval Cue A stimulus that guides the person to remember specific information stored in the memory Extinction If the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response gradually weakens and eventually disappears Spontaneous Recovery After extinction, if the conditioned stimulus is presented again, the conditioned response may reappear temporarily