Psychology Chapter on Learning Models
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Questions and Answers

What is primarily characterized by remembering items presented at the beginning of a list?

  • Serial position effect
  • Primacy effect (correct)
  • Active learning
  • Recency effect

Which method of learning is more likely to involve higher-order thinking and self-testing?

  • Active learning (correct)
  • Massed learning
  • Passive learning
  • Whole learning

How does massed practice compare to distributed practice?

  • Massed practice involves less intensity.
  • Distributed practice is spread over multiple sessions. (correct)
  • Massed practice breaks learning into smaller sections.
  • Massed practice is typically more effective.

Immediate and detailed feedback primarily serves to benefit which aspect of learning?

<p>Motivation and improvement of responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the whole method of learning?

<p>It teaches material as a complete unit. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning is characterized by low engagement, such as listening to lectures?

<p>Passive learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of active learning?

<p>Minimal engagement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The part method of learning focuses on what approach?

<p>Breaking information into smaller, manageable sections (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of motivation is more effective for driving goal-oriented behaviors?

<p>Intrinsic motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do negative emotions such as anxiety affect learning?

<p>They hinder the learning process (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does maturation in the context of learning refer to?

<p>Physical and cognitive readiness for learning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of the difficulty of material on the learning process?

<p>Harder materials require more time and concentration (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does meaningfulness of material impact learning speed?

<p>Learning is faster with meaningful connections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of motivation is characterized by external rewards?

<p>Extrinsic motivation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do positive emotions play in the learning process?

<p>They enhance focus and memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a consequence of a learner's maturation stage on information processing?

<p>It can hinder the ability to process new information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does an unconditioned stimulus (US) do?

<p>Naturally triggers a response without prior learning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does a neutral stimulus play in classical conditioning?

<p>Initially produces no specific response beyond attention (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which option correctly describes a conditioned response?

<p>A learned response to a neutral stimulus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an unconditioned response?

<p>Feeling hungry when seeing food (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario illustrates classical conditioning?

<p>A dog salivates when it hears a bell after being fed at the sound of the bell (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a conditioned stimulus differ from an unconditioned stimulus?

<p>It is only neutral until it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes classical conditioning?

<p>Learning through association between stimuli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus?

<p>It becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'contiguity' refer to in learning?

<p>The timing of the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from the process of extinction?

<p>The conditioned response weakens and disappears (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes 'stimulus generalization'?

<p>Triggering a conditioned response by similar stimuli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'contingency' indicate in learning theory?

<p>The consistency of the unconditioned stimulus with the conditioned stimulus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'spontaneous recovery'?

<p>A temporary reappearance of the conditioned response after extinction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of 'stimulus discrimination' in learning?

<p>To differentiate between similar but distinct stimuli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concept behind 'operant conditioning' as proposed by Edward Thorndike?

<p>Learning through consequences of behavior (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus several times?

<p>Weakening of the conditioned response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of reinforcement in behavior analysis?

<p>It increases the likelihood of a behavior repeating. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of positive reinforcement?

<p>Giving a child a treat for doing homework. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes negative reinforcement from punishment?

<p>Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of punishment involves the introduction of an unpleasant stimulus?

<p>Positive punishment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does negative punishment involve?

<p>Removing a pleasant stimulus to reduce behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of shaping in behavior analysis?

<p>Gradually reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the stimulus-response theory propose about behavior?

<p>Behavior results from the interaction of a stimulus and a response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is positive reinforcement utilized in training animals?

<p>By rewarding desired behaviors to encourage repetition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the cognitive perspective of learning?

<p>Cognitive processes like thought and insight (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are cognitive maps used for in learning?

<p>To navigate and solve problems based on environmental features (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of learning occurs when knowledge is not immediately evident in behavior?

<p>Latent learning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura, what is essential for observational learning to occur?

<p>Attention, retention, reproduction, motivation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of attention in the processes required for behavior to be imitated?

<p>To identify important features of the observed behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of encoding is utilized when information is processed through its meaningfulness?

<p>Semantic encoding (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor makes memory retention more effective?

<p>Emotional significance and associations with prior knowledge (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is retroactive interference?

<p>New information blocking the recall of old information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when the conditioned response reappears after extinction?

<p>Spontaneous recovery (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of retrieval cues in memory?

<p>To guide recall of specific information (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes recall?

<p>Retrieving information without explicit cues or prompts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following acts best as a model in observational learning?

<p>A credible and attention-catching figure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is encoding in the context of memory processes?

<p>The initial recording of new knowledge in a usable form (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term extinction refer to in the learning process?

<p>The weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Motivation

The force that drives goal-directed behavior, coming from internal satisfaction or external incentives.

Intrinsic Motivation

Motivation arising from internal satisfaction, such as enjoyment or a sense of accomplishment.

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation stemming from external rewards or pressures, like grades, money, or praise.

Emotions & Learning

Strong emotions influence learning. Negative emotions like anxiety hinder learning, while positive ones like joy boost focus and memory.

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Maturation

Physical and cognitive readiness for learning. It affects how efficiently someone learns at different developmental stages.

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Task Difficulty

Learning harder materials takes more effort and time, but once mastered, the learner picks up new information faster.

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Meaningful Material

Learning is enhanced when the material is relevant and connects to the learner's experiences.

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Material Relevance

Learning is more effective when the material is meaningful and relevant to the learner's life and experiences.

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Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle due to primacy and recency effects.

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Active Learning

Engaging in higher-order thinking, self-testing, and personal engagement with the material.

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Passive Learning

Learning that involves less engagement, such as listening to lectures.

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Massed Practice

Intensive learning in one block of time.

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Distributed Practice

Spreading learning over multiple sessions, generally more effective.

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Knowledge of Results

Feedback is essential for learning. Immediate and detailed feedback helps improve responses and motivates continued learning.

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Whole Learning

Teaching material as a complete unit.

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Part Learning

Breaking material into smaller sections and learning each part separately.

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Contiguity

How close in time the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are presented. Both must occur almost simultaneously for learning to happen.

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Contingency

The degree to which the unconditioned stimulus reliably follows the conditioned stimulus.

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Extinction

When a conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears after the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction, even without the unconditioned stimulus.

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Stimulus Generalization

When a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

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Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and similar but different stimuli.

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Operant Conditioning: What does it focus on?

Learning through consequences. Behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on their consequences.

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Who is associated with Operant Conditioning?

Edward Thorndike and B.F. Skinner.

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Reinforcement

A consequence that makes a behavior more likely to happen again.

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Positive Reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to encourage a behavior.

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Negative Reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to encourage a behavior.

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Punishment

A consequence that makes a behavior less likely to happen again.

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Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant to discourage a behavior.

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Negative Punishment

Removing something pleasant to discourage a behavior.

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Shaping

Gradually teaching a behavior by rewarding small steps towards the goal.

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Stimulus-Response

Learning by connecting a certain event (stimulus) with a certain action (response).

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Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response. This happens when a neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a learned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without any prior learning. It evokes an automatic, unlearned reaction.

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Neutral Stimulus

A stimulus initially not associated with a specific response, besides perhaps causing attention. It is neutral until paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned (conditioned) response.

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

The natural, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus. It is a reflexive, unlearned reaction.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to a conditioned stimulus. It is a response elicited by the previously neutral stimulus.

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What is the difference between a neutral stimulus and a conditioned stimulus?

A neutral stimulus is initially unassociated with a specific response, while a conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a learned response. The key difference is that a conditioned stimulus has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus and has acquired the ability to evoke a response.

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Give an example of a classical conditioning scenario.

In Pavlov's famous experiment, the unconditioned stimulus (US) was food, which elicited the unconditioned response (UR) of salivation. The neutral stimulus (NS) was the bell. After repeatedly pairing the bell (NS) with the food (US), the bell became a conditioned stimulus (CS) and elicited the conditioned response (CR) of salivation.

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Cognitive Perspective of Learning

Learning is influenced by mental processes like thinking, problem-solving, and understanding.

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Cognitive Map

A mental representation of an environment used for navigation and problem-solving.

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Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate rewards but becomes apparent later.

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Social Perspective of Learning

Learning occurs through social interactions and observing others.

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Observational Learning

Learning by imitating a model's behavior.

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Model

A person or object that is influential in learning.

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Attention (Observational Learning)

Paying close attention to the model's behavior.

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Retention (Observational Learning)

Remembering the important features of the observed behavior.

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Reproduction (Observational Learning)

Replicating the observed behavior.

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Motivation (Observational Learning)

The desire to learn and perform the behavior.

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Encoding

The process of converting new information into a usable format for the brain.

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Visual Encoding

Encoding information through images.

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Acoustic Encoding

Encoding information through sounds.

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Semantic Encoding

Encoding information based on its meaning.

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Retention

The process of storing new information in the brain.

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Study Notes

Learning

  • Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge or skills through studying, practice, instruction, or experience. This alters how individuals perceive and react to their environment.
  • Learning influences behavior, enabling humans to adapt to their surroundings (Myers, 2008).
  • Factors influencing learning include intellectual capacity, prior knowledge, motivation, emotions, maturation, and the quality/nature of learning materials and the social/physical environment.

Individual Variables

  • Intelligence: General ability to understand, think rationally, and adapt to challenges, including specific intelligences (e.g., verbal, numerical, emotional).
  • Motivation: Drives goal-oriented behaviors, either intrinsic (internal satisfaction) or extrinsic (external rewards). Intrinsic motivation is often more effective.
  • Emotions: Emotional states affect learning. Positive emotions enhance focus and memory, while anxiety hinders learning.
  • Maturation: Physical and cognitive readiness for learning, influenced by developmental stage.

Task Variables

  • Difficulty of Material: More challenging material requires more time and concentration but can be learned more quickly once mastered.
  • Meaningfulness of Material: Learning is faster when the material is meaningful and connects to personal experiences.
  • Serial Position Effect: Items at the beginning and end of a list are remembered better than those in the middle.

Method Variables

  • Active vs. Passive Learning: Active learning (self-testing, engagement, higher-order thinking) is more effective than passive learning (e.g., lectures with minimal engagement).
  • Massed vs. Distributed Practice: Distributed practice (learning spread over multiple sessions) is generally more effective than massed practice (intensive learning in one block).
  • Knowledge of Results: Feedback is crucial for learning; immediate and detailed feedback enhances responses and motivation.
  • Whole vs. Part Learning: Whole method teaches material as a whole, part method breaks it into smaller sections. Combining both methods is often most effective.

Learning Perspectives - Behavioral

  • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Learning through association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response (e.g., Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell).
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Naturally triggers a response without prior learning (e.g., food).
    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially produces no specific response (e.g., bell).
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a conditioned response after association (e.g., bell).
    • Unconditioned Response (UR): Natural, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to food).
    • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to a conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to a bell).
  • Operant Conditioning (Thorndike, Skinner): Learning through consequences; behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on consequences (reinforcement, punishment).
    • Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior repeating. This includes positive reinforcement (adding something pleasant) and negative reinforcement (removing something unpleasant).
    • Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior repeating. This includes positive punishment (adding something unpleasant) and negative punishment (removing something pleasant).
    • Shaping: Guiding learning by reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior (step-by-step teaching).

Learning Perspectives - Cognitive

  • Cognitive Map (Tolman): Individuals create mental representations (cognitive maps) of their environment to navigate and solve problems.
  • Latent Learning: Learning that is not immediately evident in behavior but may become apparent later when motivated or in the right situation.

Learning Perspectives - Social

  • Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by observing others. Crucial components are attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation to imitate. Key factors influencing whether behavior is imitated include the person/object's attractiveness, credibility, and whether it captures the learner's attention.

Memory

  • Memory is the retention (storage) and retrieval of knowledge.
  • Encoding: The process of registering information into the memory system. Key encoding types are visual, acoustic, and semantic.
  • Retention (Storage): The process of remembering learned information/materials over time.
  • Retrieval (Remembering): Recalling stored information. Methods include recall and recognition.
  • Forgetting: Information loss from memory due to decay, interference (retroactive/proactive), and other factors.
  • Other memory concepts: Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, retrieval cues, extinction/spontaneous recovery, and various memory processes.

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Learning Psychology Study Notes PDF

Description

Test your understanding of various learning models and theories in psychology, including the effects of practice methods, feedback, and motivation on learning outcomes. This quiz covers key concepts such as active versus passive learning and the role of emotions in education.

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