Psych Study Guide 2 PDF

**1. C107 - Physical Development in Early Childhood** **Let's start with the basics.** Physical development during early childhood involves rapid growth and change. Children grow taller, gain weight, and their bodies start refining motor skills. The **pituitary gland**, which sits at the base of th...

**1. C107 - Physical Development in Early Childhood** **Let's start with the basics.** Physical development during early childhood involves rapid growth and change. Children grow taller, gain weight, and their bodies start refining motor skills. The **pituitary gland**, which sits at the base of the brain, plays a crucial role by releasing growth hormones. **Why is this important?** The physical growth we see in children---like when they suddenly outgrow their clothes---is driven by these hormones. **Hazards to Development:**\ Unfortunately, development isn't always smooth. **Malnutrition** can stunt growth, and environmental factors like lead exposure can negatively impact brain development. Even injuries from unsafe environments can disrupt this process. **What about diet?**\ Proper nutrition is foundational. Think about how important a balanced diet is for fueling their active little bodies. But today, kids are often consuming too much sugar or fast food. We want to focus on encouraging healthy habits, like eating fruits and veggies, through modeling behavior or making healthy snacks fun. **2. C108 - Cognitive Development in Early Childhood** **Now let's talk about the brain and learning.**\ During early childhood, cognitive development refers to how children learn, think, and solve problems. **Cognitive psychologists** study these processes. **Piaget's Theory:**\ Jean Piaget proposed that kids move through **stages of cognitive development**. At this age, children are in the **preoperational stage** (ages 2-7), where they're starting to use language and imagination. But they're still very egocentric---they struggle to see things from someone else's perspective. For example, if you ask them about another child's feelings, they might relate it back to their own experience. **Vygotsky's Theory:**\ Lev Vygotsky, on the other hand, emphasized the role of **social interaction**. He introduced the concept of the **Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)**---this is the gap between what a child can do on their own and what they can achieve with guidance from an adult or peer. For example, if a child is trying to solve a puzzle, they might need help at first, but eventually, with practice, they'll master it. **3. C109 - Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood** **Emotions and relationships are developing rapidly at this age.**\ Let's break this down with **Erikson's Psychosocial Stages**. During early childhood, kids are in the stage of **Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt** (ages 1-3) and **Initiative vs. Guilt** (ages 3-5). They're learning to do things on their own, like dressing themselves. If they succeed, they feel confident. But if they're criticized too much, they might start to doubt their abilities. **Moral Development with Kohlberg:**\ At this stage, kids are in the **pre-conventional level** of moral development. They don't fully understand right and wrong yet; they mostly behave to avoid punishment or gain rewards. **Gender Differences:**\ Boys and girls may express emotions differently based on societal expectations. For instance, boys might be encouraged to "toughen up," while girls may be taught to express emotions more openly. These differences can shape their socioemotional development. **4. C110 - Physical Development in Adolescence** **Now we're moving to adolescence, a time of major physical transformation.**\ The most obvious change is **puberty**. For boys and girls, puberty involves hormonal changes that lead to physical developments like growth spurts and changes in body composition. **Eating Disorders:**\ Unfortunately, the pressure to look a certain way during adolescence can lead to issues like **anorexia nervosa** (starving oneself), **bulimia** (bingeing and purging), or **binge-eating disorder**. It's important to recognize the signs early and provide support or treatment. **Brain Changes:**\ During this time, the **prefrontal cortex**---responsible for decision-making and impulse control---is still developing. This is why teens may act impulsively or take more risks. The **amygdala**, which processes emotions, is fully active, leading to heightened emotional responses. **5. C111 - Cognitive Development in Adolescence** **Let's talk about thinking and intelligence.**\ Piaget describes adolescents as moving into the **formal operational stage**. They can now think abstractly, reason logically, and consider hypothetical scenarios. However, they may still display **egocentrism**---believing their experiences are unique or that everyone is watching them (the "imaginary audience" effect). **Theories of Intelligence:**\ Howard Gardner proposed that intelligence isn't just about IQ scores. He identified **multiple intelligences** like musical, bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal intelligence. Meanwhile, Robert Sternberg introduced the **triarchic theory of intelligence**, focusing on **analytical** (problem-solving), **creative** (innovation), and **practical** (street smarts) intelligences. **6. C112 - Socioemotional Development in Adolescence** **Finally, let's explore how adolescents handle emotions and relationships.**\ According to Erikson, this is the stage of **Identity vs. Role Confusion**. Teens are figuring out who they are and what they want to do in life. They experiment with different roles, hobbies, and peer groups to establish their identity. **Peer Influence:**\ Friends become a significant part of their lives. Teens may rely on peers for emotional support and validation. At the same time, family relationships may shift as they seek more independence. **Emotional Regulation:**\ Adolescents are learning how to manage their emotions in more mature ways. However, because their brain's emotional regulation system is still developing, they might experience intense mood swings. **C109 - Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood (Addition: George Herbert Mead)** **Let's talk about George Herbert Mead.**\ He was a sociologist and philosopher who focused on how **language** plays a crucial role in developing a sense of self. Mead believed that children learn about themselves and their social world through **symbolic interaction**, and language is the primary tool for this. Here's an example: when a child starts calling themselves by their name or uses "I" and "me," they're learning to see themselves as others do. This process helps them develop what Mead called the **"self"**, consisting of the "I" (the spontaneous, active part of self) and the "me" (the reflective, social part). In short, language is central to how kids develop their identity and understand their role in society. **C110 - Physical Development in Adolescence (Addition: G. Stanley Hall's Views)** Now, let's talk about **G. Stanley Hall**, often called the \"father of adolescence.\"\ He described adolescence as a period of **"storm and stress."** According to Hall, this stage is marked by emotional turbulence, mood swings, and risky behavior, all driven by the biological and psychological changes occurring during puberty. Hall also had thoughts about **aggression** in adolescence. He believed it was a natural part of this developmental stage as teens assert independence and navigate social hierarchies. Aggression, in his view, could take both physical and social forms, like competition for status or conflicts with authority figures (e.g., parents or teachers). **C112 - Socioemotional Development in Adolescence (Addition: Daniel Levinson's First Stage of Life)** **Daniel Levinson** developed a theory of adult development, but his work also touches on early life stages. The **first stage of life**, which he calls the **"Early Adult Transition" (ages 17-22)**, is when individuals start to separate from their family of origin and explore their identity as independent adults. In this stage, adolescents and young adults begin to make critical life decisions about education, careers, and relationships. Levinson emphasizes the importance of **mentors** during this time---adults who guide and support young people as they navigate this transition. **C113 - Identity Formation** **James Marcia's Identity Development:**\ James Marcia expanded on Erikson's work and proposed four **identity statuses** that adolescents move through as they explore and commit to a sense of self: 1. **Identity Diffusion:** The individual hasn't explored or committed to any particular identity. 2. **Identity Foreclosure:** The person commits to an identity without exploring alternatives (e.g., adopting parents' beliefs without question). 3. **Identity Moratorium:** The individual is actively exploring different roles and ideas but hasn't made a commitment yet. This is often a time of uncertainty. 4. **Identity Achievement:** After exploration, the person has made a commitment to a particular identity. These stages help explain why some teens seem indecisive while others are firmly set on their goals. **Daniel Levinson's Stages of Adult Development:**\ Levinson proposed that adulthood is divided into stages, each with its own challenges and tasks. Here's a quick overview: 1. **Early Adult Transition (17-22):** As mentioned, this stage focuses on separating from the family and establishing independence. 2. **Entering the Adult World (22-28):** Young adults explore career and relationship goals. 3. **Age 30 Transition (28-33):** A period of reassessment, where individuals may question their life choices. 4. **Midlife Transition (40-45):** Often considered a midlife crisis, this is a time of reflection and change. 5. **Later Stages:** These stages involve further reflection on life achievements and legacy. **Self-Esteem in Adolescence:**\ Self-esteem during adolescence can be a rollercoaster. **Boys and girls experience it differently**: - **Boys**: Their self-esteem is often tied to achievements, sports, and physical strength. They may feel more confident in competitive or independent activities. - **Girls**: Self-esteem can be more fragile, often influenced by body image and social relationships. The societal pressures on appearance can lead to lower self-esteem, especially with the rise of social media. Understanding these differences can help parents, teachers, and peers provide the right support to adolescents as they develop a healthy sense of self-worth.