Developmental Psych Chapter 4 PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor Chapter 4 – Birth and Physical Development during the First Three Years. The Birth Process Labor - is an apt term for the process of giving birth....

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor Chapter 4 – Birth and Physical Development during the First Three Years. The Birth Process Labor - is an apt term for the process of giving birth. Birth is hard Parturition - is the act or process of giving birth, and it typically begins about 2 weeks before delivery. The uterine contractions that expel the fetus begin—typically about 266 days after conception—as a tightening of the uterus. A woman may have felt false contractions (known as Braxton-Hicks contractions) at times during the final months of pregnancy or even as early as the second trimester, when the muscles of the uterus tighten for up to 2 minutes. In comparison with the relatively mild and irregular Braxton-Hicks contractions, real labor contractions are more frequent, rhythmic, and painful, and they increase in frequency and intensity. STAGES OF CHILDBIRTH Labor takes place in three overlapping stages (Figure 3). The first stage, dilation of the cervix, is the longest, typically lasting 12 to 14 hours for a woman having her first child. In subsequent births, the first stage tends to be shorter. During this stage, regular and increasingly frequent uterine contractions—15 to 20 minutes apart at first—cause the cervix to shorten and dilate, or widen, in preparation for delivery. Toward the end of the first stage, contractions occur every 2 to 5 minutes. This stage lasts until the cervix is fully open (10 centimeters, or about 4 inches) so the baby can descend into the birth canal. The second stage, descent and emergence of the baby, typically lasts up to an hour or two. It begins when the baby’s head begins to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal, and it ends when the baby emerges completely from the mother’s body. At the end of this stage, the baby is born but is still attached to the placenta in the mother’s body by the umbilical cord, which must be cut and clamped. The third stage, expulsion of the placenta, lasts between 10 minutes and 1 hour. During this stage, the placenta and the remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled from the mother. ELECTRONIC FETAL MONITORING Electronic fetal monitoring can be used to track the fetus’s heartbeat during labor. Monitoring is most commonly done with the use of sensors attached to the woman’s midsection and held in place with an electric belt. The sensors monitor heart rate and alert medical personnel of potentially problematic changes. Electronic fetal monitoring can provide valuable information in high-risk deliveries. However, monitoring can have drawbacks if it is used routinely in low-risk pregnancies. The use of continuous EFM in a healthy, low-risk pregnancy is associated with an increase in risk for mother and baby. This may be because EFM has a high false-positive rate, suggesting that fetuses are in trouble when they are not. Such warnings may prompt doctors to deliver by the riskier cesarean method rather than vaginally.  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor VAGINAL VERSUS CESAREAN DELIVERY The usual method of childbirth is vaginal delivery. Alternatively, a cesarean delivery may be performed when labor progresses too slowly, when the fetus is in the breech (feet or buttocks first) or transverse (lying crosswise in the uterus) position, or when the mother is bleeding vaginally. Physicians’ fear of malpractice suits and women’s preferences also may play a part in the choice of cesarean deliveries, as may the increased revenue hospitals generate when a woman has a cesarean rather than a vaginal birth. Additionally, the rise in maternal age has contributed to rising cesarean rates. Cesarean deliveries also deprive the baby of important benefits of normal birth, including the surge of hormones that clears the lungs of excess fluid, the mobilization of stored fuel to nourish cells, and the movement of blood to the heart and brain MEDICATED VERSUS NONMEDICATED DELIVERY For centuries, pain was considered an unavoidable part of giving birth. Then, in the mid-nineteenth century, sedation with ether or chloroform became common practice as more births took place in hospitals. During the twentieth century, several alternative methods of natural childbirth or prepared childbirth were developed. These methods minimize or eliminate the use of drugs that may pose risks for babies and enable both parents to participate fully in a natural, empowering experience. The most common model of natural childbirth is the Lamaze method. Along with a coach who attends classes with her, the woman is trained to pant or breathe rapidly in sync with her contractions and to concentrate on other sensations to ease the perception of pain. Other methods use mental imagery, massage, gentle pushing, and deep breathing. Today improvements in medicated delivery have led many mothers to choose pain relief, sometimes along with natural methods. A woman may be given local (vaginal) anesthesia, also called a pudendal block, usually during the second stage of labor. Or she can receive an analgesic (painkiller), which reduces the perception of pain by depressing the activity of the central nervous system. However, analgesics may slow labor, cause maternal complications, and make the baby less alert after birth. Another form of pain relief is regional anesthesia, or an epidural, which can be injected into a space in the spinal cord between the vertebrae in the lumbar (lower) region. This blocks the nerve pathways that would otherwise carry the sensation of pain to the brain. In many traditional cultures and increasingly in developed countries, childbearing women are attended by a doula, an experienced mentor, coach, and helper who can furnish emotional support and information and can stay at a woman’s bedside throughout labor. Studies have found that the use of a doula is associated with a decreased likelihood of a low-birth-weight baby, birth complications, and cesarean delivery, and a greater chance of breastfeeding success.  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor The Newborn Baby The neonatal period, the first 4 weeks of life, is a time of transition from the uterus, where a fetus is supported entirely by the mother, to an independent existence. SIZE AND APPEARANCE An average neonate, or newborn, in the United States is about 20 inches long and weighs about 7½ pounds. Boys tend to be slightly longer and heavier than girls, and a firstborn child is likely to weigh less at birth than laterborns. In their first few days, neonates lose as much as 10 percent of their body weight, primarily because of a loss of fluids. They begin to gain weight again at about the 5th day and are generally back to birth weight by the 10th to the 14th day. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Applied to the Heinz Dilemma Reasoning Regarding Example of Moral Stage Level Age Range the Heinz Dilemma Thinking Stage 1: Obedience Heinz should not steal "Stealing is wrong Pre- and Punishment ~4–7 years the drug because he will because you'll go conventional Orientation be caught and punished. to jail." Heinz should steal the "Heinz will be Stage 2: Self- Pre- ~7–10 drug because saving his happier if his wife Interest conventional years wife will make him lives, even if he Orientation happy. steals." Stage 3: Heinz should steal the "People will think Interpersonal ~10–15 drug because a good Conventional Heinz is a hero for Accord and years husband would do saving his wife." Conformity anything to save his wife. Stage 4: Authority ~15–18 Heinz should not steal "We can't condone and Social Order Conventional years and because breaking the law theft, even for a Orientation beyond undermines social order. good cause." Stage 5: Social ~Adult Heinz should steal "The right to life Post- Contract (20+ because laws that prevent supersedes the conventional Orientation years)** saving a life are unjust. right to property." Heinz should steal "Human life has Stage 6: Universal Post- ~Adult because preserving inherent value, Ethical Principles conventional (Rare)** human life is a universal more than property moral principle. laws."  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor Aspect Kohlberg’s Moral Development Piaget’s Cognitive Development Moral reasoning and ethical decision- Focus Cognitive processes and intellectual growth. making. 3 Levels, 6 Stages: Pre-conventional, 4 Stages: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Stages Conventional, Post-conventional. Concrete Operational, Formal Operational. Flexible; stages are not age-bound Stages are linked to specific age ranges (e.g., Age Range but progress with maturity. Sensorimotor: 0–2 years). Key Moral dilemmas and reasoning; how Cognitive schemas, assimilation, and Processes people justify their decisions. accommodation. Primary How individuals reason about right How individuals understand and interact Concern and wrong. with the world around them. BUILDING THE BRAIN The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord (a bundle of nerves running through the backbone), as well as a peripheral network of nerves extending to every part of the body. Through this network, sensory messages travel to the brain, and motor commands travel back. At birth, an infant’s brain is about 25 percent of its eventual adult volume. By a year of age, it has reached 70 percent of its eventual size, and by the age of 2, the typical child’s brain will be about 80 percent of its eventual adult size. However, specific parts of the brain continue to grow and develop functionally into adulthood. Brain Anatomy and Development Beginning about 3 weeks after conception, the brain gradually develops from a long, hollow tube into a spherical mass of cells (Figure 10). By birth, the growth spurt of the spinal cord and brain stem (the part of the brain responsible for such basic bodily functions as breathing, heart rate, body temperature, and the sleep-wake cycle) has nearly run its course. The cerebellum (the part of the brain that maintains balance and motor coordination) grows fastest during the 1st year of life The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is divided into right and left halves, or hemispheres, each with specialized functions. This specialization of the hemispheres is called lateralization. The left hemisphere is mainly concerned with language and logical thinking, the right hemisphere with visual and spatial functions such as map reading and drawing. Joining the two hemispheres is a tough band of tissue called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is like a giant switchboard of fibers connecting the hemispheres and allowing them to share information and coordinate commands.  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor Mnemonic: "Fancy People Only Talk Cool Boxers" 1. F - Frontal Lobe 2. P - Parietal Lobe 3. O - Occipital Lobe 4. T - Temporal Lobe 5. C- Cerebellum 6. B- Brain StemS  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES The regions of the developing brain that control sensory information grow rapidly during the first few months of life, enabling newborn infants to make fairly good sense of what they touch, see, smell, taste, and hear. Touch and Pain Anytime you have comforted a crying baby by cuddling them or tickled a drowsy child to wake them up, you have made use of perhaps the most important sense in infancy: touch. Embryos will respond to touch as early as 8 to 9 weeks of pregnancy; however, these responses do not involve any conscious awareness (Humphrey, 1970). In the second trimester of the pregnancy, fetuses begin to respond to touch, as when a pregnant mother rubs her belly, by moving their arms, head, or mouth. In the third trimester, response to touch becomes more robust, and fetuses also reach out to touch the uterine wall, yawn, cross their arms, or touch themselves (Marx & Nagy, 2015; 2017). By 32 weeks of gestation, all body parts are sensitive to touch, and thissensitivity increases during the first 5 days of life (Haith, 1986). In the past, physicians performing surgery on newborn babies, such as circumcision, often used no anesthesia in the mistaken belief that neonates could not feel pain, felt it only briefly, or did not have the memory capacity to remember and thus be affected by it. However, as discussed in Chapter 3, there is evidence that the capacity for pain perception emerges sometime in the third trimester of pregnancy and is present by birth. Newborns can and do feel pain, and they become more sensitive to it during their first few days. Anesthesia is dangerous for young infants, however, so when possible, alternative methods of pain management are used for minor procedures such as circumcision, a heel stick, or vaccines. For example, infants show a decreased pain response when they are held or cuddled, especially with skin-to-skin contact, and either breastfed orgiven a sweet solution to suck on Smell and Taste The senses of smell and taste begin to develop in the womb. Flavors from food the mother has consumed are found in amniotic fluid (Cooke & Fildes, 2011). Thus, a preference for certain tastes and smells can be developed in utero. Moreover, flavors from the foods that the mother eats are also transmitted via breast milk (Ventura & Worobey, 2013). Therefore, exposure to the flavors of healthy foods through breastfeeding may improve acceptance of healthy foods after weaning and later in life Hearing Even in the womb, fetuses respond to sound, as indexed by changes in brain activity, heart rate, or physical movements. They respond differentially to familiar versus unfamiliar voices, live versus recorded maternal voice, and native versus nonnative language Auditory discrimination develops rapidly after birth. Infants as young as 2 days old are able to recognize a word they heard up to a day earlier (Swain et al., 1993). At 1 month, babies can distinguish sounds as close as ba and pa (Eimas et al., 1971). By11 to 17 weeks, infants are able to both recognize and remember entire  DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCH CHAPTER 4 Presented By: Val Jonh A. Esparagoza, RPm Dev. Psych Instructor sentences after a brief delay (Dehaene-Lambertz et al., 2006). By 4 months, infants’ brains are showing lateralization for language, as occurs in adults. Sight Vision is the least developed sense at birth, perhaps because there is so little to see in the womb. Visual perception and the ability to use visual information—identifying caregivers, finding food, and avoiding dangers—become more important as infants become more alert and active. The eyes of newborns are smaller than those of adults, the retinal structures are incomplete, and the optic nerve is underdeveloped. A neonate’s eyes focus best from about 1 foot away—just about the typical distance from the face of a person holding a newborn. Newborns blink at bright lights. Their field of peripheral vision is very narrow; it more than doubles between 2 and 10 weeks (Tronick, 1972) and is well developed by 3 months (Maurer & Lewis, 1979). The ability to follow a moving target also develops rapidly in the first months, as does color perception (Haith, 1986). The development of these abilities is tied closely to cortical maturation (Braddick & Atkinson, 2011). Visual acuity at birth is approximately 20/400 but improves rapidly, reaching the 20/20 level by about 8 months (Kellman & Arterberry, 1998). Binocular vision—the use of both eyes to focus, enabling perception of depth and distance—usually does not develop until 4 or 5 months (Horwood, 2019). MILESTONES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT The Denver Developmental Screening Test (Frankenburg et al., 1992) is used to chart progress between ages 1 month and 6 years and to identify children who are not developing normally. The test measures gross motor skills (those using large muscles), such as rolling over and catching a ball, and fine motor skills (using small muscles), such as grasping a rattle and copying a circle. It also assesses language development (for example, knowing the definitions of words) and personality and social development THEORIES OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT The Ecological Theory of Perception highlights how infants learn to perceive and interact with their environment by adapting to its challenges. In a classic experiment, 6-month-old babies were placed on a plexiglass table that created the illusion of a steep drop. Despite their mothers' encouragement, the babies avoided crawling over the "drop," showing their ability to perceive depth. This theory emphasizes that infants' movement and perception develop as they become more aware of how their changing physical abilities (like strength and balance) interact with different environments. Over time, babies learn to adjust their actions—whether navigating stairs or slopes— based on their growing experience and the demands of their surroundings. Dynamic Systems Theory (DST), proposed by Esther Thelen, suggests that motor development is not solely driven by genetics but emerges from the interaction between the infant and their environment. Unlike traditional views that saw development as automatic, DST emphasizes that