Psych Chap 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior PDF

KEYTERMS CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior By Joseph Fakhoury PLAN: 1. The nervous system 2. Neurons 3. Structures of the brain and their functions 4. The endocrine system 5. Brain damage, plasticity, and repair 6. Genetics and behavior 7. Psychology's biological foundat...

KEYTERMS CHAPTER 3 Biological Foundations of Behavior By Joseph Fakhoury PLAN: 1. The nervous system 2. Neurons 3. Structures of the brain and their functions 4. The endocrine system 5. Brain damage, plasticity, and repair 6. Genetics and behavior 7. Psychology's biological foundations and health and wellness 1-The nervous system [Definition]: The nervous system is the body's electrochemical communication circuity Millions of nerves in our body communicate with each other, the field that studies the nervous system is the *neuroscience* Characteristics of the nervous system **[COMPLEXITY]** Billions of nerves **work together** in our brains that allows us to do numerous activities (Talk, dance, sing, think) **[INTEGRATION]** The nervous system has different part of the brain and body, each nerve cells communicates on average with 10,000 others making an **astronomical number of connections** **[ADAPTIBILITY]** Our brain needs to **adapt to new conditions** for our survival. We might believe that thinking is a mental "process" though every thought is reflected in physical activity in the brain **Plasticity:** The brain's special physical capacity for change **[ELECTROCHEMICAL TRANSMISSION]** The brain and nervous system functions by electrical impulses and chemical messengers Pathways in the nervous system There is specializes pathways that are adapted for different functions: **[AFFERENT NERVERS OR SENSORY NERVES]** (**A**fferent/**A**rrives to the brain) Nerves that carry information about the external environment to the brain cord via sensory receptors. **[EFFERENT NERVES OR MOTOR NERVES (]E**fferent/ **E**xits the brain) Nerves that carry information out of the brain and spinal cord to the other areas of the body Divisions of the nervous system Primary divisions of the nervous system into: **[CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)]** - Made up of the brain and spinal cord, 99% of all nerve cells are found there. - Functions in the processing of information and issuing commands **[PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)]** The network of nerves that connects the brain and the spinal cord to other parts of the body, the functions of PNS is to bring/take information from the brain and spinal cord. [Thus, the PNS is divided into 2 major parts:] **Somatic nervous system:** The sensory nerves whose function is to convey information to the CNS about conditions such as pain and temperature and the motor nerves whose function is to tell muscles what to do. **Autonomic nervous system:** The body that takes message to and from the body's internal organs to monitor processes as breathing, heart rate and digestion. [Furthermore, the autonomic nervous system is divided into 2 parts:] ***Sympathetic nervous system***: The part of the Autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to mobilize it for action thus is involved in the experience of stress ***Parasympathetic nervous system:*** The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body. 2-NEURONS There are 2 types of cells in the nervous system: neurons and glial cells **[GLIAL CELLS OR GLIA]** They provide support, nutritional benefits, and other functions and keep neurons running smoothy, but they are not part of the signal's transmission - Transport nutrients from blood vessels to neurons **Oligodendrocytes**: from myelin sheaths in the CNS **Schwann:** from the myelin sheaths in the PNS **[NEURONS]** handles the information-processing function **Mirror neurons:** When someone makes the action Infront of us and we watch we activate the mirror neurons (the only Motor-sensor system) Specialized Cell structure **Neurons are divided into 3 parts (Cell body, Dendrites, and axon)** **CELL BODY** Contains the *[nucleus]* which directs the manufacture of substances that the neuron needs for [growth and maintenance] **DENDRITES** Treelike fibers projecting from a neuron, which *[receive information]* *[and orient]* it towards the *[neuron's cell body.]* **AXON** Carries information away from the cell body toward other cells *[MYELIN SHEATH]* A layer of fat cells that fasten the transmission of nerves impulses of the Axon (like a conductor) Multiple sclerosis (MS): a disease in which myelin sheath get replaced, symptoms: blurry, double vision, weakness, and tingling sensations through the body. The Neural Impulse To transmit information to other neurons, a neuron sends brief electrical impulses through its **Axon**, the gates in which the transaction of ions and some fluids happen is called *Semipermeable* Resting potential: The stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron = ion gates closed = (+)ions outside and (-)ions inside = polarized Action potential: The brief wave of positive electrical charge that sweeps down the axon = open on an impulse = (+sodium) enters and (+potassium) exits = depolarization Steps that occur along the axon: 1. At rest, the neuron has a negative charge because of the(--) ions are inside the membrane and (+) Ions are outside, this stage the neuron is at the resting potential 2. When the neuron fires, the tiny gates open and (+) ions(sodium) rush inside which makes a neuron to have a (+) charge, this is called the action potential 3. After firing, the sodium channels close and Potassium channels open moving (+) Ions(K) out of the neuron and returning to its previous (--) charge, some channels then pump sodium out of the neuron making the neuron return to its resting potential The action potential abides by the ALL-OR-NOTHING PIRNCIPLE: The principle that once the electrical impulse reaches a certain level of intensity it fires and moves all the way down the axon without losing any intensity Synapses and Neurotransmitters **[SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION]** ***Synapses***: tiny spaces between neurons, the gaps between neurons are referred to as synaptic gaps, only chemical signal crosses this gap (means electric signal must be converted to chemical) ***Neurotransmitters:*** Axon has fibers called terminal buttons in which chemical substances that are stored and involved in transmitting the information across the synaptic gap to the next neuron. The receptor site is responsible of getting the neuron (like Keyhole and key) every receptor can take a unique neurotransmitter, what's left get reabsorbed by the axon (Reuptake) **[NEUROCHEMICAL MESSENGERS]** Different types of neurotransmitters: **1-Acetylcholine:** stimulated the firing of the neuron and is involved in muscle action learning and memory, low acetylcholine= Alzheimer disease **2-GABA:** plays a key function role in the brain by stopping many neurons from firing, low level of GABA=anxiety **3-Glutamate:** has a role in exciting neurons to fire involved in learning and memory, also low glutamate= Alzheimer, anxiety, depression, Parkinson... but HIGH levels = Migraine headaches and seizures. **4-Norepinephrine:** when we are stressed= norepinephrine releases. low norepinephrine= depression high=agitation and jumpiness (Drug cocaine) **5-Dopamine:** helps control voluntary movement and affects sleep, mood, attention, learning. Low dopamine= Parkinson, problem in regulating= schizophrenia **6-Serotonin:** involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, attention, and learning. Low serotonin= depression **7-Endorphins:** plays role in eliminating pain and elevate feeling of pleasure (firing of neuron) = euphoric feeling **8-Oxytocin:** Hormone and neurotransmitter that plays role in love and social bonding **[DRUGS AND NEUROTRANSMITTERS]** Most drugs interfere with the work of neurotransmitters which will influence behavior, drugs can lower or increase the effects of neurotransmitters. Diseases: \- Alzheimer: Low levels of Acetylcholine \- Migraine: High levels of Glutamate \- Parkinson's: Low levels of Dopamine or High levels of Glutamate \- Schizophrenia: High levels of Dopamine \- Depression: Low levels of Serotonin or Glutamate or norepinephrine -Anxiety: low levels of GABA NEURAL NETWORKS: Definition: Networks of nerve cells that integrate sensory input and motor output 3-STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTION How researchers study the brain and nervous system Earlier studies relied on individuals who had suffered brain damage from injury or disease, but modern discoveries rely on technology to look "inside" the brain. **[BRAIN LESIONING]** Definition: abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain resulting from injury or disease. Some neuroscientists produce lesions in lab animals to determine their effect on behavior, recent methods use *[the transcranial magnetic stimulation]* (Causing a virtual lesion) **[ELECTRICAL RECORDING]** An electroencephalograph (EEG) records the brain electrical activity EEG assess brain damage, seizure disorder and other problems Another technique that measures electrical activity is called *single unit recording neuron* **[BRAIN IMAGING]** 4 techniques that allow scientists to get a picture of the brain are: CAT, PET, MRI and fMRI 1. **CAT scan or CT scan** (structures): reflects a 3D X-rays image that provides valuable information about the location of damages (CT scan provides information about structure but not activity) 2. **PET scan** (Brain activity): provides information about brain activity (Used to diagnose Alzheimer, because PET shows the neurotransmitters) + relies on the metabolism of glucose 3. **MRI** (structure): good method, but it shows only the structure, it relies on *[Hydrogen]* levels in the blood. 4. **fMRI** (Brain structure + activity): used to establish links between brain areas and behaviors and to understand the links among different brain areas. Relies on the level of Blood O2 How the brain is organized Different parts of the brain= The neural tube is divided into 3 parts **[HINDBRAIN]** Located at the Skull's rear, the lowest portion of the brain, consisting of the medulla, cerebellum, and pons. [The medulla:] regulates breathing, heart rate, reflexes, blood pressure and vomiting [The Cerebellum:] Associated with voluntary muscle movement, coordination, and balance (Cerebellum can easily get disrupted by Alcohol) [The pons] connects the cerebellum and the brain stem, also regulates functions as sleep and arousal. **Brain stem:** the stemlike brain area that mostly includes the hindbrain (excluding the cerebellum) and the mid brain. **[MIDBRAIN]** Located between the hindbrain and forebrain, the midbrain relays information between the brain and the eyes and ears: There are 2 major parts in the midbrain, the substantia nigra and the reticular formation: - [Substantia nigra]: main dopamine receptor, associated with including pleasure and addiction + causes tremors and rigidness if damaged - [Reticular formation]: a system in the midbrain comprising a diffuse collection of neurons involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior such as walking, sleeping, and turning to attend to a sudden noise. (attention). **[FOREBRAIN]** The brain's largest division and its most forward part. 1. **Limbic system**: a connected network of structures under the cerebral cortex important in both memory and emotion, the two most important structures of it are the amygdala and hippocampus: -[Amygdala:] involved in the discrimination of objects that are necessary for the organism's survival, such as food, mates, and social rivals -[Hippocampus]: the structure of the limbic system that has a special role in the storage of memories 2. **Thalamus**: The forebrain structure sits at the top of the stem serves as an important relay station, associated with sleep and wakefulness 3. **Basal ganglia**: large neurons that work with the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex to control and coordinate voluntary movements 4. **Hypothalamus**: monitors three pleasurable activities: drinking eating and sex as well as emotion, stress and reward due to the secretion of many hormones 5. **Cerebral cortex:** (the outer layer of the brain) 80% of this area is the neocortex. The cerebral cortex where thinking and planning takes place, its divided into 2 hemispheres, which is divided into 4 lobes. ***Left cerebral cortex and right cerebral cortex have 4 lobes:*** [**-**Temporal lobes:] responds to hearing, language processing and memory. Damage can reduce the long-term memory. [-Occipital lobe:] Responds to visual stimuli (Color, shape, and motion) [-Parietal lobe:] located at the top and toward the rear of the head, involved in determining spatial location, attention, and motor control (numerical data, Einstein had 15% bigger in size) [-The frontal lobes:] Found behind the forehead involved in personality, learning, speech, intelligence, and voluntary muscle control. [-The somatosensory cortex] located at the front of the parietal lobes, process body sensations located at the front of parietal lobe [-The motor cortex:] Deals with voluntary movements, located behind the frontal lobe. [ASSOSIATION CORTEX or ASSOSIATION AREA] [-The association cortex] Highest intellectual functions (planning, problem solving, self-control...) THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES AND SPLIT-BRAIN SEARCH: [The corpus callosum allows both parts of the hemispheres to receive the information] **THE LEFT HEMISPHERE: Logical and rational side** - Examples: comprehension (reading, analyzing...) - Broca's area: Production of language and speech (Frontal Lobe) + has the fusiform face area that recognize familiar faces/objects - Wernicke's area: understanding language and speech (language comprehension) - Primary language processing unit - May be involved in spatial association (means some right hemisphere functions) - Is associated with the right side of the body **THE RIGHT HEMISPHERE: Creative and artistic side** - Does have some language functions - **I**nformation processing= visual recognition, creativity, emotion, and humor - It's associated with the left part of the body 4-THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM All organs that release hormones via the blood 1. Pituitary gland: Controls growth and regulates other glands 2. Adrenal gland: regulate mood, energy levels, coping with stress (epinephrine and norepinephrine) 3. Pancreas: dual-purpose gland both digestive and endocrine functions 4. Testes and ovaries associated with sex hormones 5-BRAIN DAMAGE, PLASTICITY AND REPAIR The brain can repair itself (Plasticity) by/ better in young ages because the brain is still in reproduction of neurons: - Collateral sprouting = healthy neurons next to damaged cells grow new branches - Substitution of function = the damaged region's function is taken by another area of the brain - Neurogenesis = New neurons are formed Brain tissue implants - Brain Grafts = implanting healthy stem cells from fetal tissue into damaged 6-GENETICS AND BEHAVIOR [Chromosomes, genes, and DNA:] The human body is composed of billions of cells, each one has a nucleus and inside each nucleus there is a chromosome, and inside each chromosome a DNA sequence carrying genetic information THE STUDY OF GENETICS In the mid nineteenth century it started with Gregor Mendel, when he crossbreeds pea plants and observed new traits. (Dominant-recessive genes principle) There is 4 ways in which scientists study our genetic heritage: - Molecular genetics: manipulation of genes using technology to determine their effect on behavior - Genome-wide association method: obtain DNA from both people (diseased and normal) -\> compare genetic variation, if there is variation means the disease exists - Behavioral genetics: method used twin studies (Nature and nurture) - Selective breeding (Maze-running rats' experiment by Robert Tryon) when Robert mated the rats after 21 generations, he observed that they improved. The study demonstrated genetic influence on behavior GENES AND THE ENVIRONMENT - A genotype (Unobservable characteristic), it's interaction with the environment gives us the phenotype (observable characteristic) - Example of an individual who have genes coding for a tall person, without the environmental support of appropriate shelter, nutrition and medical support this person may never reach his/her genetically programmed height. PSYCHOLOGY'S BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS AND HEALTH AND WELL-BEING - Different type of stress (stressors) - Acute stress: when the situation ends, so does the stress. - Chronic stress: continuous stress (best to be avoided may lead the immune system to collapse leaving the individual vulnerable to diseases) Ch03 -- 91/100 1. A 2. B 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. A 7. C 8. D 9. A 10. B 11. B 12. D 13. A 14. A 15. A 16. C 17. D 18. C 19. C 20. A 21. A 22. C 23. B 24. D 25. B 26. C 27. D 28. D 29. B 30. C 31. B some substances not others? semipermeable 32. B 33. A 34. B 35. B 36. C 37. D 38. C 39. A 40. C 41. B 42. B 43. C 44. D 45. B and C also? ?? www 46. B 47. D 48. D 49. ?? c 50. D 51. A 52. A 53. A d 54. A 55. B 56. A 57. D 58. C 59. A 60. D 61. D a 62. B 63. A 64. A 65. B 66. B 67. C HIPPOCAMPUS = MEMORY 68. d 69. C b 70. D 71. A 72. C IMPORTANT FUNCTION OF HYPOTHALAMUS? A 73. C hypothalamus body temperature emotional states and coping with stress? 74. B 75. B 76. A 77. D 78. Recognition of faces? C 79. D c 80. D b 81. A 82. B 83. B 84. A 85. D 86. C 87. D 88. D 89. C 90. C 91. A 92. B 93. A 94. B 95. A 96. D 97. A B 98. D 99. A 100. D 11- f? F T 14- false T T T T F T 21- t F T F T