PSYC7324 (2024) Final Slides PDF

PSYC7324 (2024) Dr John Hunter [email protected] Textbook cited: (Bless, Higson-Smith & Sithole, 2013) ICE Task 1 Using your textbook… Explain the difference between non-scientific and scientific research Be sure to explain: Rationalism...

PSYC7324 (2024) Dr John Hunter [email protected] Textbook cited: (Bless, Higson-Smith & Sithole, 2013) ICE Task 1 Using your textbook… Explain the difference between non-scientific and scientific research Be sure to explain: Rationalism Empiricism How the combination of these two is essential in the scientific approach Explain why scientific knowledge is more reliable than other knowledge At least one page long (references on the second page) 1.5 spacing ICE Task 2 Produce an information sheet and consent form, taking all aspects of the previous slide into consideration. (Use your REPR7312 study and ensure that your information sheet and consent form provide the required information for participants of your study). ICE Task 3 - Interview Participate in an honours student’s research project by being a participant in an interview. (I realise that only some students will be selected for participation) Read the information sheet, sign the consent form, take part in the +- 30-minute interview. Write a short (+- half a page to a page) review of the interview. You can comment on the information sheet, the questions asked, or anything about the interview process. Try to be critical, but constructive – comment on what was done well, but what you think could have been improved upon. What did you learn for when you need to conduct interviews next year? ICE Task 4 Using three sources, explain what trustworthiness is. Choose two components of trustworthiness and explain: What these components of trustworthiness are. What can be done to enhance these elements of trustworthiness. 1.5 Spacing At least one page (excluding your personal details and the reference list) ICE Task 5 Explain what descriptive and inferential statistics are.  PSYC7314 6 lectures 4 lectures 6 lectures 6 lectures 6 lectures 8 lectures LU1: Psychology as a LU2: Ethics in LU3: Understanding LU4: Research LU5: Data Collection LU6: Data Analysis Social Science Research the Research Process Planning and Design Theme 1: Theme 1: Sources and Theme 1: Theme 1: Exploring Theme 1: Ethics in Theme 1: Overview of Quantitative data identification of Understanding scientific research research data collection analysis and research problems research designs interpretation Theme 2: Theme 2: Understanding the Theme 2: Types of Theme 2: Types of Theme 2: Scales of Theme 2: Inferential Understanding value of research in research research designs measurement statistics research ethics psychology Theme 3: Approaches Theme 3: Research Theme 3: Ethical Theme 3: Methods of Theme 3: Statistical to research in questions and Theme 3: Sampling guidelines data collection testing psychology variables Theme 4: Qualitative Exam => 120 marks “spread more or less evenly between the learning units” data analysis 6 Learning Units => approximately 20 marks per learning unit Theme 5: Ensuring the quality of data 36 lectures in total  LU1: Psychology as a Social Science (4 lectures) Theme 1: Exploring scientific Theme 2: Understanding the Theme 3: Approaches to research value of research in psychology research in psychology LO6: Distinguish between LO1: Explain the concept of LO4: Differentiate between quantitative, qualitative and scientific research natural and social sciences mixed methods approaches LO2: Describe the LO5: Discuss the LO7: Describe the steps in characteristics of the relationship between fact quantitative research scientific method and theory LO3: Apply the properties of LO8: Describe the steps in scientific research qualitative research LO9: Describe the steps in mixed methods research LO1: Explain the concept of scientific research (Ch1) This relates to the concept of epistemology (what is knowledge and how do we know if something is true) Some ways of knowing are better (more reliable) than others “The need to adopt a scientific approach as the most appropriate and reliable method becomes obvious as its properties are described in detail. However, due to the complexity of social reality, other, more adaptable, methods also have to be considered” (p. 1). Authority… Authority figures can be wrong (specialists often disagree with each other). An authority on one subject may not be an authority on another subject. Authority figures can be dishonest. While it is often necessary to put your trust in authority figures, you should be aware that there are risks to this. Always try to find someone with a different perspective and remember that you are ultimately responsible for checking the things you accept to be true. LO1: Explain the concept of scientific research (Ch1) Non-scientific methods of acquiring knowledge 1. Method of authority (p. 1) We trust those who we believe know the answers 2. Mystical method (a form of authority) (p. 2) Knowledge is passed to individuals by supernatural sources 3. Intuitive method (p. 2) Things are true because they feel true, or seem to be true 4. Conventional wisdom (a variation of the intuitive method) (p. 3) “Common sense” ways of understanding the world E.g. Opposites attract (vs. birds of a feather flock together) 5. Rationalistic method (p. 2) Knowledge can be generated through logic/reason E.g. if A is true and B is true, then surely this means that C must be true 6. Empirical method (p. 3) Only things which we observe (using our senses), and measure accurately, can be trusted LO2: Describe the characteristics of the scientific method (Ch1) “The scientific method, described on page 4, is a synthesis of the rationalistic and the empirical methods. It uses rationalism to develop theories about the world and empiricism to test these theories. Science thus involves a continuous interplay of rational thought and empirical observation” (p. 3). A rationalist might say, “Lectures help students to learn so logically attending more classes will lead to higher results.” An empiricist would say, “I want to objectively measure class attendance and exam results and see if a relationship exists.” A person using the scientific method would combine the two, saying, “Logically, one would think that attending lectures would lead to higher results, but I want to find some way of objectively measuring if this is actually the case.” “The combination of observation and the process of logical thought provide a deeper understanding of the world. Thus, a description of the facts can only be complete when both the direct information given by our senses and the deeper understanding based on reasoning and judgement are taken into account” (p. 14). LO3: Apply the properties of scientific research (Ch1) The scientific method and its properties (p. 4) Science assumes certain things (pp. 5-6). 1. The existence of natural and social laws (ways of explaining things and relationships between things) 2. Laws can be discovered by human beings 3. Natural phenomena have natural causes (magic or God may be explanations, but they are not scientific explanations) 4. New knowledge is accumulated gradually and sequentially 5. Knowledge and truth are founded on evidence 6. Scientific statements must be distinguished from common-sense statements “Absence makes the heart grow fonder” is a common-sense statement. It may be true, but it would have to first be scientifically tested. 7. Scientific observation is objective 8. Scientific observation is systematic It follows a structured, sequential, orderly, and known process (and is thus transparent) LO3: Apply the properties of scientific research (Ch1) Properties of scientific research (p. 8) 1. “Scientific research is empirical since the aim is to understand reality. Each step is based on observation […] The assumption of scientific research is that reality exists outside of the observer. Scientists attempt to understand the world outside of their personal biases.” “Quantitative methods use a variety of tools to help scientists be more detached and dispassionate about what they research.” “Qualitative methods focus on acknowledging, understanding and allowing for biases in a transparent manner. Whether or not this is attainable is often debated by social scientists.” 2. “Scientific research is systematic and logical. Not only must the observation be done systematically, but a logical order must also be followed.” “One cannot prepare a questionnaire to gather all data necessary for a study, before having a clear idea of the type of information required. An analysis of the different variables involved must be undertaken prior to the formulation of the questions to be answered by the respondents.” LO3: Apply the properties of scientific research (Ch1) Properties of scientific research (p. 8) 3. “Scientific research is replicable and transmittable.” If someone else did the study they would make the same observations, and – using logic – they would make the same predictions based on those observations. By transmittable, it means that the process used to come to those results (the method) should be clearly communicated. In a scientific journal the method and the results are clearly communicated, so that peers (other scientists) can review and challenge the process and results if they see problems. When scientific ideas can withstand criticism (which scientists invite), they remain plausible; however, if ideas cannot stand criticism they must be abandoned. 4. “Scientific research is reductive.” “By grasping the main relationships between laws, the complexity of reality is reduced. All details which are not essential or which have little influence on the process under investigation are omitted.” LO3: Apply the properties of scientific research (Ch1) Properties of scientific research (p. 9) 5. A scientific claim must be falsifiable. This means that scientific claims should be able to be stated as a hypothesis, and it should be possible to show that the hypothesis is false. For example, if you have a scientific claim that greater class attendance always leads to higher marks then if you gather empirical data (you gather information on both class attendance and marks) and the data show that the claim is NOT TRUE then you would reject the hypothesis. A claim like, “The positions of the planets at the time of our births have an impact on our personalities” (astrology) is quite unspecific and vague. Only a more specific claim could clearly be shown to be false, so that claim would be unfalsifiable. LO4: Differentiate between natural and social sciences (Ch2) Research arises from some sort of need “Natural sciences investigate the properties and laws of natural phenomena. The development of natural sciences is at times determined by the needs of production, commerce and industry” (p. 12). Astronomy was needed for agriculture Geometry was needed for navigation Mechanics was needed for building large structures and machines Chemistry, physics and biological sciences address the needs of industries like mining, medicine, and transport. LO4: Differentiate between natural and social sciences (Ch2) Research arises from some sort of need “On the other hand, social sciences investigate the properties and laws of social phenomena. The development of social sciences has its roots in the need for understanding, management and manipulation of social affairs” (p. 12). The development of both the natural sciences and the social sciences reflect the needs of the societies and the times in which they developed. Countries in Africa may focus more on (and develop sciences to address) something like the spread of malaria, rather than on space exploration. This is particularly true for the social sciences, however. Even within the field of psychology, South African universities tend to focus on issues that are different to those focused on in the US, for example. Ethics tends to play a much larger role in the social sciences as well (because studies often require human participants). Social reality tends to be more complex and it is more difficult to control all relevant variables Remember probabilistic explanation. A physicist can make more accurate predictions (and laws) than a psychologist, in general LO4: Differentiate between natural and social sciences (Ch2) The approach used in the social sciences This debate has been going on since the 1960s Some (positivists) believe that social sciences are “natural sciences of individuals in society” (p. 13) and, as such, the methods used in the natural sciences – with a few modifications – are appropriate. “…the differences between natural and social sciences demand an adjustment of the natural sciences’ research methods to social reality. The methods and techniques must be modified and adapted according to the characteristics of the social processes, but they are the correct ones for a successful understanding of social issues and the building of theories” (p. 13). Others believe that the social sciences demand a very different approach, or that the social sciences are not actually scientific: “On the other hand, many people argue that the rigid scientific method is often incapable of grasping the fluidity of many social phenomena” (p. 13). There is a range of reluctance to acknowledge the social sciences, from pointing towards challenges in accurate measurement, to denying that any laws exist in social reality. LO5: Discuss the relationship between fact and theory (Ch2) “A fact is an indisputable set of statements about reality” (p. 13). “One does not need to embark on a research process to establish a fact; it has been established and can be demonstrated daily” (p. 13). “For example, it is a fact that the sun rises in the east and sets in the west” (p. 13). “A theory might be defined as a set of ideas or statements that explain a particular social phenomenon” (p.13). “For example, learning theory may be used to explain anti-social and maladaptive behaviour at school. Social learning theory maintains that behaviour is learned and therefore a child may have learned anti-social and maladaptive behaviour from his family” (p. 13). A theory is often made up of a set of facts. A fact is often not an explanation, while a theory should explain something. LO5: Discuss the relationship between fact and theory (Ch2) Facts give rise to theory since they raise a need for explanations of the observed phenomena. Theory serves as a basis for gathering facts since it specifies the facts which must be observed. Observations in scientific research are often guided by theory (deductive research). Facts allow a researcher to find support for, disprove or formulate a theory. “A scientific explanation or theory must be subjected to empirical testing to determine whether it corresponds to observed reality” (p. 14). Theories allow facts to be predicted. Is these facts do not align with observed reality then the theory must be abandoned. E.g. If the theory is that poverty is the only cause of violent crime and wealthy people are observed to commit violent crimes then this theory must be abandoned. Theory reformulation is important to science (knowledge generation). They allow us to understand the world more accurately, so theories must always be tested, improved, and discarded if necessary. Theories are typically not proved. Theories remain plausible/useful if they are tested and not proven false. This is not the same as proving that they are correct. Theories allow us to classify and conceptualise facts. They summarise and provide explanations of how relevant facts relate to each other. Theories predict facts. E.g., Consider social identify theory. What facts does it consider? How does it say these facts relate to each other and what does it predict?  LO6: Distinguish between Table 2.1 (pp. 17-18) is a quantitative, qualitative and mixed great summary of the methods approaches (Ch2) differences between quantitative and qualitative research. “Quantitative methods emerged “… qualitative methods emerged from the philosophical belief that out of more recent philosophical the world runs according to natural beliefs that truth is relative and laws and that the role of the that knowledge is constructed by scientist is to uncover or discover human beings…” (p. 15). these pre-existing laws…” (p. 15) “Thus truth is assumed to be “In other words, our understanding absolute and independent of the of the world is a product of our human beings that search for it” (p. personal assumptions, biases and 15). prejudices” (p. 15). LO7 and LO8: Describe the steps in quantitative and qualitative research (Ch2) Steps in quantitative research Steps in qualitative research 1. Selection and formation of the research 1. Selection and formation of the research problem problem 2. Reviewing literature 2. Reviewing literature 3. Developing a research method 3. Developing a research method 4. Developing a data collection instrument 4. Developing a data collection instrument 5. Sampling 5. Sampling 6. Data collection 6. Data collection and analysis 7. Data analysis 8. Interpretation of results 7. Interpretation of results 9. Conclusions and recommendations 8. Conclusions and recommendations 10. Dissemination of results 9. Dissemination of results LO9: Describe the steps in mixed methods research (Ch2) “… mixed methods research is likely to follow either the quantitative or qualitative research process outlined above, depending on which kind of data collection is dominant in the research design” (p. 22). As you have seen from your INRS7311 summative, studies may involve quantitative data collection (a big sample using questionnaires, for example) and then move onto a qualitative data collection separately, using a sample made up of a limited number of participants from the original sample. In my current study, I am using a survey which mainly collects quantitative information, but allows participants to write short open-ended responses when the closed-ended options do not accommodate their answers.  LU2: Ethics in Research (4 lectures) Theme 1: Ethics in research Theme 2: Understanding research ethics Theme 3: Ethical guidelines LO9: Discuss the various ethical LO1: Justify the need for ethics in LO4: Explain what is meant by considerations when conducting research research ethics psychological research LO2: Distinguish between LO5: Define the concept of an LO10: Draft an information sheet legislation and ethics ethical dilemma and consent form LO11: Discuss researchers’ LO3: Explain ethics in data LO6: Discuss the importance of responsibilities for data analysis and reporting context in research ethics management LO7: Discuss principles of ethical LO12: Discuss ethics in reporting research back to participants LO8: Discuss deception in research LO4: Explain what is meant by research ethics (Yes, we’re starting with LO4… because it’s what makes sense!) What are research ethics? (p. 28) Related to “morality” Morality is more related to “right and wrong,” while ethics relates more to the degree to which a behaviour conforms to a code or set of principles Ethics appear to be related to the principle of reciprocity “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” Some version of this exists in most societies Ethics is related to the idea that all humans should have the same rights and protections “In other words, researchers have the right to search for truth and knowledge, but not at the expense of the rights of other individuals in society” (p. 29). LO1: Justify the need for ethics in research Researchers often have more power than those who participate in their research. People (“stakeholders,” which include research participants and other people) can be harmed if researchers do not act ethically. We don’t want people to be harmed because: It is wrong to harm people It prevents research from being conducted in the future Some research would be easier to do if ethics were not a consideration (if we did not care about harming others) Because of this there have been terrible examples of unethical research in the past… LO1: Justify the need for ethics in research E.g., 1932 – 1972 study on syphilis among 399 African American men Many of these men were diagnosed with syphilis Treatment was deliberately withheld to “see if there is a difference between those treated and not treated.” The mortality rate of those who received no treatment (or fake treatment) was double that of those who received treatment. In Nazi Germany, experiments were conducted on prisoners during which poisons or germs were injected into people, body organs were removed, and amputations were conducted without anaesthesia. Psychological studies Milgram’s study on obedience (1963) Zimbardo’s prison experiment (1971) In South Africa It has been alleged that possibly 900 forced sexual reassignment operations were performed on gay and lesbian soldiers between 1971 and 1989. LO1: Justify the need for ethics in research In developing countries there are additional ethical concerns: Research can be used to motivate selfish things There are limited funds to spend on research so it is even more important to be transparent about which research is chosen (and why) Which research is of the greatest benefit to society? Think of your rationale and relevance sections in your research proposals (REPR7312). Four relevant issues in developing countries: 1. Highest quality practice (validity, reliability and trustworthiness). 2. Building capacity of all sectors of the community (more people should be empowered to conduct and understand research). 3. Relevance (Is it useful to society? This is not always clear). 4. Promulgation of results (Make sure that people can both access and understand the results. Open-access publication costs more, so this is an issue). LO2: Distinguish between legislation and ethics Legislation (laws) are more objective and can result in criminal charges for their transgression. Ethics are principles which attempt to ensure that every person is treated fairly and not taken advantage of. It is not, for example, against the law to mislead a person or to take advantage of a person who does not understand what your (selfish) goal might be. In terms of research ethics, it is emphasised that all those involved in the research (including, and perhaps especially, the participants) feel good about their participation. E.g., The principle of “do unto others…” could not be enforced as a law, but it can be a guiding principle which can be used to assess the behaviour of individuals. In research there are, however, laws which relate to how data (the information collected from participants) is stored and protected (see later) Ethical standards that should be applied when publishing research (Howitt & Cramer, 2017, pp.174-175). Ethics and publication 1. Ethical standards in 3. Proper credit for 4. Publishing the same data 5. Availability of data for 2. Plagiarism reporting research publications repeatedly verification Journals will always ask if the When you publish results, Do not claim credit (as an Do not use the work of other research has been published other (qualified) people should Do not fabricate (make up) author) for research that you people without acknowledging before and in submitting to be able to check your results data have not materially them them you tacitly agree to not by going through your contributed to publish elsewhere methodology and data If errors are noted after Occasionally citing the source The contributions of each If data are published more Exceptions to this are when: publication the researcher can is not good enough; all ideas “author” should be clearly than once then it is important make a correction or a from others must be explained, so the journal can to explicitly state that this is - The anonymity of participants retraction of the article referenced decide if they deserve credit the case is essential - A third party has the rights to the data that was used (In order to behave ethically When publishing the person towards participants, who contributed the most verification may be curtailed) Direct quotes give credit, but ETHICS WHEN these should be used sparingly should be listed as the principle (first-named) author PUBLISHING RESEARCH etc. LO5: Define the concept of an ethical dilemma An ethical dilemma is a situation in which you have more than one possible course of action and each course of action is unethical in some way. E.g., Imagine you have promised a person confidentiality in an interview but that person reveals that they may be in danger in some way during the interview. Do you say, “Well, that’s not my problem…”? Do you tell someone that the person is possibly in danger and reveal their identity (breaking the confidentiality agreement)? What if the danger is not very likely, but potentially very harmful? LO6: Discuss the importance of context in research ethics Things that are ethical in one context may not be ethical in another (and vice-versa). For example: The drinking age (alcohol) is 21 in the US and 18 in SA and other countries. You could not do research on the effects of alcohol on (most) students’ concentration in the US as many would be under 21 and drinking would be illegal. LO7: Discuss principles of ethical research The American Psychological Association (APA) has five ethical principles (A, B, C, D and E) which align closely with these ones from your textbook: Non-maleficence (non-harm) Don’t harm the participants Beneficence (benefit) Contribute to the wellbeing of others (participants and society) This involves doing the right research and doing it well Autonomy (freedom/independence) Participants should be free to participate or leave at any point (and withdraw their data) In order to be free to participate they need sufficient information (“informed consent”) There was a question on this in the brief LO7: Discuss principles of ethical research The American Psychological Association (APA) has five ethical principles (A, B, C, D and E) which align closely with these ones from your textbook: Justice Treat everyone fairly/equally Don’t discriminate against anyone based on, e.g., race, gender, disability, income level etc. Doing research that benefits everyone (not just doing the most profitable research) would fall under this heading Fidelity (honesty/trustworthiness) Keep agreements you make with participants Avoid deception as far as possible (and know the rules for using deception) Respect for participants’ rights and dignity This often requires taking culture into consideration Some people may feel very uncomfortable speaking about certain topics If participants cannot read or write (or this is a challenge for them) then requiring them to complete written surveys or any sort may not be fair Overlaps with harm/non-maleficence but is more subtle (even if something doesn’t cause harm it may affect a participant’s rights and dignity) There was a question on this in the brief  Five ethical principles of the American Psychological Principles are not rules – they require some Association (Howitt & Cramer, 2017, pp.165-167). interpretation and should guide behaviour American Psychological in a wide range of circumstances Association Ethics Principles Principle B: Fidelity and responsibility Principle D: Justice – equality of Principle A: Beneficence and non- Principle C: Integrity – accuracy, Principle E: Respect for people’s access to the benefits of maleficence (Fidelity = honesty, truthfulness rights and dignity psychology honesty/trustworthiness) In their professional work, Honesty is of great importance Psychologists should exercise Individuals have the rights of Psychologists should seek to (unless deception results in privacy, confidentiality and self- psychologists are in relationships careful judgement and take care benefit and avoid harm to those greater benefits than losses); AND determination. Some individuals of trust with people. They are in order that all people with whom they engage with if there are any negative manifest vulnerabilities which thus required to take experience just and fair professionally consequences from deception the make it hard to make responsibility for their actions, psychological practices. adhere to professional standards psychologist must do what can be autonomous decisions (e.g. of conduct done to mitigate these children). consequences Psychologists should both be Psychologists should be aware of aware of and guard against those the nature of their biases It is worthwhile quoting one (potential and actual). They Psychologists should also be factors which may result in harm aware of cultural differences as to others. aspect of the professional fidelity should not engage in, or condone, ethic: unjust practices and need to be well as differences based on age, aware of the ways in which ethnicity, gender, disability, “Psychologists strive to contribute language, sexual orientation etc. a portion of their professional injustice may manifest itself time for little or no compensation Psychologists should avoid biases or personal advantage” (p. 166). related to these differences and critical of those who are not GENERAL ETHICS LO8: Discuss deception in research Consider examples of research where participants have been deceived, for example Milgram’s experiment. Debate the value and permissibility of such studies (Howitt & Cramer, 2017, pp.171-172). See next slide…  Ethical issues that are likely to influence researchers (Howitt & Cramer, 2017, pp.167-174). Ethical issues likely to influence researchers Research with individuals in Informed consent to a less powerful or Inducements to Use of deception in Institutional approval Debriefing research subordinate position to the participate research researcher Circumstances in When doing research Informed consent for E.g. A university If physical or An explanation of the which informed Unreasonably large at an organisation/ General recordings and professor using emotional arm can nature of experiment, consent may not be monetary or other institution (e.g. photography students as come to participants the results, and the necessary inducements to police, prisons, participants, or a participate should then deception can conclusions should be schools, universities, senior manager using not be offered never be used provided to business), you have People have the right junior employees as participants so they There are exceptions The study could not understand why the to get permission to know what they participants to informed consent be expected to cause experiment was done are agreeing to when if the recordings or harm, AND one of Deception may be and how the findings they agree to it photography happen justified if the will be used. in a public place and research has the reaction was not If there are Participants should “scientific, triggered - The study uses potentially negative be able to clarify any educational, or anonymous consequences for not queries they have applied value” AND questionnaires or taking part this is about the research at no other way of observations in a problematic; this this stage conducting the If the research natural setting; should be avoided by research exists AND requires deception - The study concerns an ethical researcher no physical or then consent for the job-related matters emotional harm can recording may be and the participant is come to participants This is particularly obtained after the not at risk of losing essential when recording is made his/her job deception was used - The study concerns “normal education Consider practices” in the “Donald” experiment ETHICS WHEN context of an educational vs. Milgram’s Experiment DOING RESEARCH establishment LO9: Discuss the various ethical considerations when conducting psychological research Ethical review (pp. 31-32) Submit a proposal to a research ethics committee who can provide feedback on any areas of concern Informed consent and voluntary participation (p. 32) Consent is permission to use a person as a participant Informed consent is permission to use a person as a participant when the person knows enough about what the study involves to make an informed decision Confidentiality (p. 32) Information provided by participants should not be shared and steps should be taken to ensure this information (including the participants’ identities) are not shared LO9: Discuss the various ethical considerations when conducting psychological research Anonymity (p. 33) A participant’s data should never be associated with their name Often the distinction between confidentiality and anonymity is that confidentiality is when the researcher knows who the participant is but does not disclose this information, while anonymity can occur in quantitative studies when the researcher may never know who the participant is. Appropriate referral (p. 33) There should be plans in place to refer participants who experience negative effects as a result of participation for counselling or other services Discontinuance (p. 33) Participants are made very aware that they can leave the study at any time without penalty LO9: Discuss the various ethical considerations when conducting psychological research Research with vulnerable populations (pp. 33-34) Informed consent can only be given by those capable of understanding what they are agreeing to. Vulnerable persons include children, mentally ill persons, disabled persons, unemployed persons, refugees, asylum seekers and homeless persons (these people may be competent to provide informed consent, but their circumstances must be carefully considered). Deception (p. 34) This should be avoided when possible, but some research may require deception If any harm (physical or psychological) can come to participants it cannot be used It cannot be used if the study could occur without deception Participants must be debriefed afterwards and explained the true nature of the study If participants are unhappy about the research and the deception then the continuation of the study should be carefully reviewed LO9: Discuss the various ethical considerations when conducting psychological research (LO3: Explain ethics in data analysis and reporting) Ethics in analysis and reporting (p. 35) Researchers can’t change their data or observations They can’t fabricate data (make it up) Both of these things have occurred in the past Researchers should be honest about limitations in their research (technical shortcomings, failures, negative findings and methodological constraints). The researcher should be honest about: The value of the research to science (it is tempting to overstate its value) The risk it poses to participants (it’s tempting to understate the risk) The balance of benefits to risks Whether enough has been done to minimise the risks LO9: Discuss the various ethical considerations when conducting psychological research Reporting back to research participants (p. 35) Results should be presented to participants in a way that they can understand Obtaining access to research participants by means of gatekeepers (p. 35) E.g., companies, schools, prisons, universities If you want to conduct research on members from those institutions you may need to speak to “someone important” at the institution to get permission Relationships with organisations (pp. 35-36) Organisations can be very helpful with research (e.g., using students for research and gaining access to people of the same age with similar interests, place in life etc.). Maintaining good relationships with these organisations by providing them with insights from the research can be very helpful Publication (p. 36) Consider the ethical dilemma of having a good relationship with an organisation (who can assist you with a great deal of really helpful research going forward), but finding out something negative about them in a current study. E.g., You might be studying a school and you find that their academic standards are not as high as they have told the parents of their students. What do you do if they do not want you to publish the results? LO10: Draft an information sheet and consent form Information sheet: Written information about the nature of the study, which includes a statement about the participant’s rights and the obligations of the researcher The things included in the information statement will differ based on the nature of the study so you cannot just use the information statement from one study for another – instead some guidelines exist on what things should be considered. It should avoid complex language and jargon so that a the person reading it can understand it. Consent form: A written agreement in which the participant acknowledges that they have read and understood the information statement and agree to take part in the study.  Information sheet and informed consent Draft an information sheet and informed consent for non-experimental guidelines studies that meet ethical standards (Howitt & Cramer, pp. 175-177). Information sheet Consent form Things to consider: Includes: - The purpose of the study and what it aims to achieve - The title of the research project - What the participant will be expected to do - I have been informed about and understand the nature of the study YES/NO - The amount of time the participant will have to devote to the study - Any questions that I had were answered to my satisfaction YES/NO - How confidentiality of data will be assured - I understand that I am free to withdraw myself and my data from the research at any - How privacy of personal data will be achieved time with no adverse consequences YES/NO - Arrangements for the security of the data - No information about me will be published in a form which might potentially identify me YES/NO - A list of who will have access to the data - My data, in anonymous form, may be used by other researchers YES/NO - The purposes for which the data will be used - I consent to participate in the study as outlined in the information sheet YES/NO - Whether participants will be personally identifiable in publications based on the research - (Space for the signature of the participant, their name in full, and the date of the agreement). - The voluntary nature of participation - The ability of participants to withdraw at any point (without explanation) - The (potential) benefits of the study - Any risks of participating (potential harm) The information sheet and the consent form are - Permission to contact the participant at a later date often combined. The information sheet is essential - Contact details of you (the researcher) and your team so the participant can ask for informed consent. questions later if necessary LO11: Discuss researchers’ responsibilities for data management Covered earlier (difference between legislation and ethics) But (basically) you have a responsibility to ensure that the data (information about participants) is kept safe for a certain period of time and then disposed of. You need to be able to explain how it will be kept safe, who will have access to it, and when it will be disposed of. Discuss researchers’ responsibilities for data management (Howitt & Cramer, 2017, pp.177-179). Unlike ethics, which are not based on laws, data management is based on legislation (laws) “Data protection, in European countries, is required by legislation to cover all forms of recorded information whether it is digitally stored on a computer, for example, or in hard copy form in filing cabinets” (p. 177). The university that you study at should have a data protection policy; even the department you are in likely has its own data protection policy (UK textbook). Data protection does not only include protecting research data – it covers any personal data that is recorded for any purpose (e.g. name and contact details of students). Since you, as a researcher, will inevitably collect data from various individuals, it is essential that you understand the legislation. Discuss researchers’ responsibilities for data management Data protection legislation does not apply if the personal data are in anonymous form. When collecting the data, if participants do not enter their names, contact details, or other identifying information, the data would be anonymous. An extra step – if age is an important population parameter – could be to just ask for the year of birth, rather than the day, month, and year (which might be used to identify someone). While it is nice to not be restricted by data protection legislation, there are obvious disadvantages to only collecting data in anonymous form If you wanted to do a follow-up study, or contact participants for any reason, you cannot do this if you do not have their contact details. Follow-up studies are relatively rare, however. Sometimes the nature of the data collection and the research makes it impossible to achieve anonymity E.g. Videoed participants are identifiable even if they have not provided their names and contact details E.g. People with specific jobs in specific organisations are also identifiable “… if the data are personal and the person is identifiable, then the Act applies” (p. 177). LO12: Discuss ethics in reporting back to participants See page 35 of your textbook  LU3: Understanding the Research Process (5 lectures) Theme 1: Sources and identification of Theme 1: Sources and identification of Theme 3: Research questions and Theme 2: Types of research (Ch 5) research problems (Ch 4) research problems (Ch 4) variables (Ch 6) LO1: Define the concept of LO5: Define the criteria that LO8: Describe the different LO13: Differentiate between conceptualisation in need to be satisfied before ways of classifying research concepts and variables psychological research commencing with research LO2: Explain the role of LO6: Define the purposes of a LO9: Describe the different LO14: Identify the different conceptualisation in literature review types of research types of variables psychological research LO10: Explain the criteria for LO3: Identify the various LO7: Discuss the different LO15: Formulate research the selection of a research sources of research topics sources of literature questions type. LO16: Distinguish between LO4: Identify a research LO11: Define and conceptual and operational problem demonstrate causality definitions LO12: Define characteristics LO17: Distinguish between for testing a causal directional and non- hypothesis directional hypotheses  LO1: Define the concept of conceptualisation in psychological research You have covered this before in INRS7311, so refer to those slides and that textbook as well. The short answer is that conceptualisation is the process of defining abstract concepts that are used in your research so that readers/users of your research know what you are talking about when you refer to these concepts. Sometimes these concepts can be defined in different ways so conceptualisation ensures that readers know what you mean. Conceptualisation is also the first step towards operationalisation which is the process of converting abstract concepts into measurable variables. Operationalisation is required when doing quantitative research as concepts like “depression,” “happiness,” “extraversion,” “confidence,” etc. must be measured. BUT this is not what conceptualisation is referring to in this context Interesting, since conceptualisation – as you had learned about it in INRS7311 – was necessary because some concepts mean different things in different contexts! If you are asked anything about conceptualisation in the exam, ask yourself if you are being asked to conceptualise certain important concepts/terms that are central to your research OR if your being asked about the process of deciding what you should do your ENTIRE STUDY on. LO2: Explain the role of conceptualisation in psychological research So, what is conceptualisation in this context (PSYC7314)? Conceptualisation may also refer to the conceptualisation of a research topic, or conceptualising a research project. Selecting a research topic Formulating a research problem In other words, conceptualisation can be about the process of deciding what to study, based on what needs to be studied, what interests you, what your strengths and limitations as a researcher are, etc. Conceptualizing a Research Topic (Part 1) - YouTube LO3: Identify the various sources of research topics (These all may guide the conceptualisation process) 1. Observation of reality Noticing that something occurs and asking yourself why? E.g. Why do things fall towards the ground when dropped? 2. Theory Scientific research often involves testing theories (or hypotheses). Theories should predict that something will occur under certain conditions. Research can involve testing whether that prediction is true or not. 3. Previous research Sometimes replicating a study may remove doubt about the previous study’s results Sometimes inductive (qualitative) studies generate hypotheses and deductive (quantitative) studies may be useful to test those hypotheses 4. Practical concerns Noticing a problem and trying to provide insights/a solution (applied research) E.g. The pass rate of PSYC7314 students is low. What factors contribute to this low pass rate (and what, therefore, might be done to improve the pass rate)? 5. Personal interest Sometimes research may be interesting to the researcher, but not have an immediate practical application My research into the indoctrination used in LGATs seemed of little value to most people outside of a small group who had participated in these seminars. It appears that there are applications for bipolar disorder, and for understanding religious experiences in bipolar disorder, however. 6. Researching topics of interest to another party Much research may be of interest or practical value to those other than the researchers. Researchers frequently require funding and will, therefore, attempt to find research that they are interested in, for which there is motivation (and funding) to get it done. This can create ethical issues, such as the fact that most medical research in the world (that receives the majority of the funding) is relevant to only a small, but wealthy, subset of the population. LO4: Identify a research problem (also a part of the conceptualisation process) Three steps to narrow the range of interest: Topic area 1. The selection of the topic area Based on factors discussed on previous slide Social conditions (practical factors) often play an important role General problem Some social issues become fashionable during certain periods E.g. LGBTQ+ studies are more prevalent now than 10-20 years ago Financial incentives play a big role Well-defined 2. The selection of a general problem question E.g., There is a high rate of divorce in South Africa 3. The reduction of the general problem to more specific, well-defined research questions E.g. What are the factors which might influence divorce? (qualitative… still quite broad) What is the relationship between divorced parents and divorced children? (quantitative… more focused) What is the correlation between earnings (financial stability) and marriage length? What is the correlation between traditional values and marriage length? LO5: Define the criteria that need to be satisfied before commencing with research (Also relates to conceptualisation, p. 47) 1. Empirical testability Can you gather data to assess what the answer to your research question is? E.g. The question, “Is God good?” may not be empirically testable, but the question, “What percentage of people believe that God is good?” is. 2. Feasibility Is it possible that you can conduct this research? What things are important to consider here? 3. Critical mass This relates to the rationale and relevance – is the area of focus of the research so narrow that the results are unimportant? 4. Interest While (3) relates to whether other people will be interested in the research, this relates to whether the researcher is interested in the research. 5. Theoretical value Also relates to academic rationale and relevance. How does the study advance knowledge or fill a gap in the literature, particularly with regards to a better understanding of a topic? 6. Social relevance and practical value Think “beneficence”. Does the research possibly help to solve a practical problem? E.g. Research into renewable energy could reduce the use of fossil fuels (which impact the environment negatively). LO6: Define the purposes of a literature review See pages 49-50 1. To sharpen the theoretical framework of the research 2. To familiarise the researcher with the latest developments in the area of research (why is this important?) 3. To identify gaps in the knowledge and weaknesses in previous studies 4. To discover connections or contradictions between previous studies 5. To identify variables that should be considered (and those that might be irrelevant) 6. To understand the definitions (conceptualisations) used in previous studies (the best ones, and possibly ones that allow comparisons with previous studies, can be used) 7. To see which research methods are best for studying the topic of interest There are also some risks to literature reviews (what are they?)  From FIRST STEPS IN RESEARCH What makes a good literature review? (Maree, 2019) “Your literature review will normally provide an overview of current, and sometimes not so current yet still sufficiently relevant, research appropriate to your research topic and salient factors of the topic…” (p. 28). “You will, however, need to go one step further to identify the gap between what has been written on the topic and what has not been written, as well as possible flaws in the literature…” (p. 28). What does it mean by “ identifying the gap”? Can you identify a gap if you have not read widely around the topic? What possible flaws might there be in the literature? Methodological weaknesses (e.g. only quantitative studies exist) Contextual weaknesses (e.g. no studies have been conducted in South Africa) Conceptual weaknesses (e.g. the IQ tests used to assess a key variable were standardized in the USA)  From FIRST STEPS IN RESEARCH What makes a good literature review? (Maree, 2019) “Mouton (2000) lists the following criteria for a good literature review” (p. 29). It should be: Exhaustive (you cannot claim to have found a gap in the literature, or to be adding something new if you have not read everything that there is to read about the topic, as it relates to your research question). Fair in the treatment of authors (you should include multiple perspectives – not just the ones that support your position). E.g. Studies on sleep disruption and dopamine that presented contradictory views (from my own research) Recent (don’t use outdated sources when more recent and relevant sources exist, but you can use seminal works, or studies of higher quality even if they are older). HIGH QUALITY SOURCES (i.e. Journal articles are best; some sources will count against you). Relevant (only use sources that contribute to the reader’s understanding of your “story” and to answering your research question). Well-organised (break the literature review into meaningful sections and, if necessary, sub-sections. Begin with an introductory paragraph that explains what should be expected in the rest of the literature review, explicitly state what your sections/themes will be and how they relate to each other, use clear subheadings for these sections, write clearly, and conclude with a paragraph that summarises what has been covered. Well-written (In addition to being well-organized, your use of language and the clarity of what you write is essential in this section. Ask someone who writes better than you do to proof-read it for you. (We have a tutor who can assist you).  From FIRST STEPS IN RESEARCH What makes a good literature review? (Maree, 2019) Additionally: The points from two slides ago should be considered The difference between a satisfactory and a great literature review is that a great literature review covers the basics, but also demonstrates critical engagement with the literature. This means that if you show that you are thinking about the quality of the studies, their methodological approaches, and the contextual and conceptual elements then this will be rewarded. You also need to integrate sources so that you are using multiple sources within a section to support certain statements or, perhaps, to provide countering points to one another. At an honours level, this integration of sources into a coherent argument is often challenging, so you need to keep this in mind for your third submission. PERFECT in-text referencing. LO7: Discuss the different sources of literature See pages 50-51 LO8: Describe the different ways of classifying research Ways of classifying research (types) Approach? Type? Demands of the Methodology Research aim Primary vs. Secondary research question Primary research is Exploratory research Basic social research Applied social when the researcher Quantitative (Or “pure” research) research collect new data to answer a research question Descriptive research The aim is to increase The aim is to solve a Qualitative understanding of a particular problem Secondary research is particular aspect of confronting a group when the researcher Correlational research society of people uses existing data to answer a research question Mixed-methods Explanatory research The brief asks you to identify the research APPROACH that is best-suited to a scenario LO9: Describe the different types of research These are a range of adjectives that can be used to describe or classify research. It is important to note that research may be described/classified using multiple adjectives, so the type of research involves the combination of adjectives used to describe it. E.g. You might have a qualitative study that is exploratory and which is inductive. This research may be applied research. E.g. You might have a quantitative study that is explanatory and which is deductive. It may also be empirical and might be considered pure/basic research. LO9: Describe the different types of research Methodology (pp. 58-59, but you have covered this in-depth before) Qualitative Approach? Make sure you know when to use a quantitative approach, Quantitative a qualitative approach or a mixed-methods approach. Mixed Method Research aim (pp. 59-60) Basic/pure research Applied research LO9: Describe the different types of research Primary vs. secondary Primary This is how most research occurs. You gather primary data through interviews, focus groups, questionnaires, or direct observation Secondary This is when you use data that already exists and you analyse that pre-existing data in a new way. For example, using qualitative content analysis, you may analyse speeches given by a politician, or you may analyse the discussions which occur under YouTube videos. Secondary research is sometimes called “desktop research” because you don’t need to leave your desk to get it done.  LO9: Describe the different types of research Demands of the research question (pp. 60-62) Exploratory research (typically qualitative) Done when very little is known about the topic (usually qualitative) Be careful here – for any research there are things we don’t know; this doesn’t mean that all research is exploratory. Exploratory research is often done when we don’t even know what the relevant variables in a given area of study might be. Descriptive research (qualitative or quantitative) Enough is known about the topic to allow focused research, but the goal is to simply describe the phenomenon (not necessarily explain it) This can be quantitative (e.g. gathering percentages of people who hold a particular view) or qualitative (E.g. describing a particular experience through the perspective of those who experience it). Correlational research (typically quantitative) This is generally done when assessing a correlational relationship between two or more variables. Often this research can be non-manipulative or passive, meaning that the researcher gathers data on several variables without doing anything to change any of those variables. ANALYSED USING, FOR EXAMPLE, PEARSON’S R (MEASURE OF ASSOCIATION) Explanatory research (typically quantitative) Remember that “correlation is not causation.” Explanatory research is when a causal relationship between (usually two) variables is being assessed. This type of research is often manipulative or active, meaning that the researcher runs an experiment and deliberately manipulates one variable (the independent variable) in order to see if this causes a change in another variable (the dependent variable). AN EXPERIMENT IS A GOOD EXAMPLE OF EXPLANATORY RESEARCH ANALYSED USING, FOR EXAMPLE, A T-TEST (MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE) LO10: Explain the criteria for the selection of a research type (p. 63). “It should be clear that the choice of the type of research, whether exploratory, descriptive, correlational or explanatory, cannot be arbitrary. It depends on the following factors” (p. 63): 1. The object of research What is being researched (what variables are being compared/considered) and do these variables allow for manipulation (as is required in an experiment)? Is enough known about the topic to identify variables (or is exploratory research required first)? 2. The aim of the research Should there be an attempt to establish a causal relationship or is a correlational study preferable? Is it perhaps better to consider a descriptive study? 3. The nature of the data to be collected Do you have the tools (e.g. scales) to assess the variables in question? Do you have sufficient individuals who meet the population parameters (target population) to gather sufficient data, and can you access these people? “What things do you have to consider when deciding what type of research to conduct?” This is a great passage to understand the relationship between different types of research: “In conclusion, the four types of research (exploratory, descriptive, correlational and explanatory) are applied to different aspects of the same research topic. For example, concentrating on the results of an election, one could explore the range of voter attitudes, describe the political trends expressed by the number of seats won in parliament by each political party, correlate the level of education of the voters with their involvement in the election process, or analyse the cause/effect relationship between voting preferences of parents and that of their children, and thereby be able to explain voting behaviour” (p. 67). LO11: Define and demonstrate causality (pp. 63-64) What is an experiment and why do we use this research design? If you can understand this, you can understand causality Research Methods: Experimental Design – YouTube (2:39) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qtLnBz6lbRQ The TBI example is not a true experiment. It is a quasi-experiment. What is the difference between a true experiment and a quasi-experiment? Designing an Experiment: Step-by-step Guide | Scribbr – YouTube (5:44) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-wc7CNeIz8 Independent variable vs. dependent variable Confounding variables Experimental group vs. control group Between subjects design vs. within subjects design Internal validity vs. external validity Why is the control condition in the example decaffeinated coffee, rather than water? If you can explain why a dependent variable changes (what causes it to change) then your study is EXPLANATORY  LO11: Define and demonstrate causality (pp. 63-64) Establishing causality – that is, that one “thing” causes a change in another “thing” – is important in research. If you understand causal relationships and you know, for example, that an increase of A causes a decrease of B then if you want less of B you increase A and if you want more of B you decrease A. The statement, “correlation is not causation” is relevant here and it is important to know the difference between variables that are correlated as opposed to those which are causally related. E.g. Age and general knowledge might be positively correlated (generally as people get older their general knowledge improves); however, age does not cause an increase in general knowledge. Experience is likely the mediating variable (the thing that causes the increase in general knowledge). If you are describing the relationship between two (or more) variables, but cannot explain whether one variable causes a change in the other then your study is descriptive or correlational  LO11: Define and demonstrate causality (pp. 63-64) To establish causality there are three criteria to consider: 1. Temporal order If you claim that a change in A caused a change in B then A must have occurred before B. 2. Association For there to be causation there must be a strong correlation. (Correlation does not mean that there is causation, but you need correlation for causation). 3. Eliminating plausible rival explanations The researcher must show that the only thing that could have caused a change in the dependent variable is the independent variable. The goal of an experiment is to eliminate confounding variables so that there are only two This lies at the variables: heart of the The independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates (and which the researcher INTERNAL believes will cause a change in the dependent variable). VALIDITY of a The dependent variable is the variable that the researcher measures after manipulating the independent variable research In experiments two groups are created – one group has one quantity of the independent variable design and the other group has a different quantity of the independent variable, but other than that there are no differences between the two groups. Because of this, if there is a difference in the dependent variable between the groups one can be sure that the difference in the independent variable caused that difference. LO11: Define and demonstrate causality (pp. 63-64) Potential errors in causal explanation Tautology E.g. Poverty is caused by having very little money This reasoning is circular as having very little money is poverty – it explains nothing to claim that having very little money causes having very little money. Spuriousness A spurious relationship, in the context of research, might be thought of as a relationship between two variables that seems to be causal, but which is not (upon closer inspection). E.g., you might find that there is a positive correlation between the use of sun screen and ear infections. In areas where sun screen use is higher the rate of ear infections is also higher. Does this mean that sun screen is causing ear infections, or is the relationship between sun screen use and ear infections spurious (is there a better explanation for the increase in ear infections?) People may use more sunscreen when they go swimming, and it may be more likely the swimming is the real cause of increased ear infections. Correlation (more sunscreen is associated with more ear infections) is not causation (more sunscreen causes more ear infections) LO12: Define characteristics for testing a causal hypothesis 1. A causal hypothesis must have at least two variables E.g., Independent variable is (i) alcohol consumption; and the dependent variable is (ii) balance 2. A causal hypothesis must express a cause/effect relationship between the variables E.g., Higher levels of alcohol consumption result in a diminished ability to balance. 3. A causal hypothesis can be expressed as a prediction E.g., If you give a person a lot of alcohol it will have a negative effect on their balance. 4. A causal hypothesis is linked to a research question and a theory Q: Does alcohol consumption have an impact on balance? Th: (There may be theories relating to the impact of alcohol on GABA and how this inhibitory neurotransmitter impacts the cerebellum, which contributes to movement in humans). This link to a theory reveals a DEDUCTIVE approach (the theory informs the hypotheses) 5. A causal hypothesis is falsifiable If the hypothesis is that high levels of alcohol have a negative impact on balance, one could gather empirical evidence to test this hypothesis. You could assess balance before and after alcohol and see which was better. If balance after alcohol was no different to than before alcohol (with a big enough sample) then your hypothesis would be falsified. LO12: Define characteristics for testing a causal hypothesis (Run through the example on page 65) Variable A = malnutrition Variable B = illiteracy Variable C = socioeconomic factors You may notice a relationship between malnutrition and illiteracy, but… Does malnutrition cause illiteracy? Does illiteracy cause malnutrition? Are both illiteracy and malnutrition the result of (caused by) socioeconomic factors? An experiment allows you to test causation, although with the example above an experiment may not be ethical or possible (due to the potential harm it may cause and because of the time-scale required). LO12: Define characteristics for testing a causal hypothesis To show a causal relationship between two variables (A and B) you need to: 1. Prove that A occurred before B (the cause must come before the effect) 2. Prove that variable A and B are correlated (that a relationship exists between them) A change in A is associated with a change in B 3. Prove that the relationship between A and B is not spurious (i.e. that the relationship cannot be better explained by another “confounding” variable). Experiments are good at showing causality because you manipulate A which means that A occurs before B (“1”); you do all that you can to remove other things that could cause a change in B (“3”); and then you see if B changes (“2”). If a change in A is associated with a change in B – and there is no other possible explanation for the change in B – then we conclude that the change in A caused the change in B. LO12: Define characteristics for testing a causal hypothesis An experiment is the best research design (best internal validity) to test a causal hypothesis. Explanatory research typically involves the use of experiments. “The purpose of correlational research is often only to detect the existence of a relationship between variables that suggests a possible base for causality” (p. 66). “In this case correlational research is useful as a first step towards explanatory research. Correlation does not necessarily imply causation, but causation always implies correlation, since if A causes B, A and B must vary together” (pp. 66-67). Correlational studies also allow for the assessments of the correlations between multiple variables at the same time (experiments deliberately remove all variables other than the ones which may be causally related), so they are useful in that regard. The problem is that multiple variables may hide, or exaggerate the relationships between other variables. How do you think this might occur? LO13: Differentiate between concepts and variables (pp. 72-73) Based on your understanding of INRS7311, concepts are conceptualised (qualitative) and variables are operationalised (quantitative). Look at conceptual and operational definitions (pp. 80-82) So, what is a concept and what is a variable? If you conceptualise something (e.g. ‘depression’ or ‘extraversion’) you explain what you mean by the term in your research. If you need to measure those concepts (e.g. you want to understand the correlation between extraversion and depression) then would need to operationalise both ‘extraversion’ and ‘depression.’ You may employ different scales (on the same questionnaire) to measure each participant’s level of extraversion and depression. Concepts that can have different values, and which are being measured in a study, are called variables. Now that you understand what a concept and a variable are, what is a constant? LO14: Identify the different types of variables Independent variable (IV) “That variable that is manipulated or selected by the researcher to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon, the dependent variable” (p. 392). Dependent variable (DV) The variable that is measured after manipulating the IV. It is hypothesised that a change in the IV will lead to a change in this variable. Moderator variable This is a variable that may impact the relationship between the IV and the DV. For example, you may find a correlation between exercise and body weight to be -0.7, but other variables like age or gender or diet may be moderator variables that change that correlation. Control variable “That variable which is controlled (eliminated or neutralised) by the researcher, to avoid it influencing the relationship between the independent and dependent variables” (p. 390). Extraneous variable (confounding variable) “That variable which, if not controlled, will obscure (confound) the observed relationship between the independent and dependent variables. It is sometimes called a ‘spurious’ or ‘confounding’ variable” (p. 391), Antecedent variables “The variable which influences the independent variable and in that way indirectly affects the relationship between the independent and dependent variable” (p. 389). LO15: Formulate research questions A research question is a question which captures what you, as the researcher, are hoping to find out. It should be as concise and clearly defined as possible. A hypothesis is a prediction (typically about the relationship between two or more variables) which should relate closely to the research question. E.g. The research question might be: “Does greater class attendance lead to higher marks?”, and the (alternative) hypothesis might be: “Greater class attendance leads to higher marks.” See characteristics of usable hypotheses on page 83. If you’re given hypotheses can you create a research question and if you’re given a research question can you generate hypotheses? LO16: Distinguish between conceptual and operational definitions (See pages 80-82) This links closely to LO13 Conceptual definitions explain what is meant by a term; operational definitions explain how you would go about measuring those terms (variables). LO17: Distinguish between directional and non-directional hypotheses NON-CAUSAL hypotheses Directional (and non-causal): are investigated in CORRELATIONAL studies More studying is associated with higher marks More gaming is associated with lower marks Heavier weights while training are associated with greater muscle growth Greater alcoh