Psyc361 Studyguide PDF

11/20 Chapter 14 Middle Adulthood - ‘Middle Aged” = 30s —> retirement age (late 60s — early 70s) - Focus on physical functioning, work, personal and family transitions, possible burnout, thinking of or settling into retirement - Speed begins to decline - Endurance...

11/20 Chapter 14 Middle Adulthood - ‘Middle Aged” = 30s —> retirement age (late 60s — early 70s) - Focus on physical functioning, work, personal and family transitions, possible burnout, thinking of or settling into retirement - Speed begins to decline - Endurance and strength are at their peaks Physical Changes (Changes in vision, hearing, skin, and muscle/fat) o Vision ▪ Inability to adjust focus to varying distances, especially small objects ▪ Pupil shrinks, lens yellow ▪ Poor vision in dm light ▪ Decline in color discrimination o Hearing ▪ Decline in hearing high frequencies ▪ Men show earlier, more rapid decline ▪ Less able to hear certain sounds or pick up what someone is saying in a noisy environment o Skin and Hair ▪ Wrinkles, sagging, and age spots ▪ Skin begins t thin, shows more signs of sun damage, pollution, and gravity ▪ Gray and thinning hair o Muscle/Fat ▪ Middle-age spread, fat gain in torso Men – upper abdomen, back Women — waist, upper arms ▪ Very gradual muscle decline Menopause (Definitions and Symptoms) - Gradual end of fertility: o Irregular periods that eventually end. Ovaries stop maturing ova and decreases release of estrogen and testosterone ▪ Symptoms can last for about 10 years  ▪ Age range: late thirties to late fifties ▪ Earlier in non-childbearing women, smokers - Drop in hormones can cause difficulties o Sexual functioning: desire, lubrication, discomfort o Decreased skin elasticity, loss of bone mass o Hot flashes, night sweats, irritability, anxiety o Cognitive “fog” or forgetfulness, increased brain aging Reproductive Changes in Men - Decrease in: o Sperm volume, motility starting in the twenties o Semen after age 40 - Gradual decline in testosterone: o Sexual activity stimulates production - Erection difficulties (erectile dysfunction) o Frequent problems may be linked to anxiety, disease, injury, loss of sexual interest o Viagra and other drugs offer temporary relief Coping Styles (Problem-centered coping vs. Emotion-centered coping) - Problem-centered coping o Identity and appraise problems o Choose and implement potential solutions o Focus on reducing or emoting sources of stress at home, work, etc. o Behavioral/environmental changes - Emotion-centered coping o Internal, private appraisal of problems o Control distress when the situation can’t be changed o Focus on improving how stress is handled by dealing with and regulating emotional reactions o Stress management techniques Hostility and Health (Describe the effects on health, hostility, and type A personality) - Type A Behavior pattern: o Angry, impatient, competitive o Prone to heart disease, other health problems - Express hostility o Angry outbursts, rudeness, criticism, contempt Disparities in Health - Reasons for differing health and access to care in the US o Unequal distribution of health care resources o Residential segregation, low-income communities, more pollution, poor living conditions o Discrimination o The impact of early life o Trauma and stress Age related slowing of information processing - Neural Network View o Neurons in he brain fie, breaking neural connections o Brain forms new but less efficient connections ▪ Connections are less efficient - Information-Loss View o Information lost at each step through cognitive system o Whole system slows down to inspect, interpret information The Aging Brain: Individual Differences - Aging in the brain is unique to each individual - Challenging life circumstances can age the brain prematurely by more than 20 years: - Pollution - Chronic illness - Malnutrition - Trauma - Actively challenging your bacon can help slow the pace of aging - Exercise leads to peak brain, physical and emotional health Memory in Middle Adulthood - Working memory speed declines from 20s to 60s o Fluid reasoning: the components of thinking — processing speed, memory, attention, and abstract thinking. In the 50s to 60s. depends on work, lifestyle, health as well o Adults can compensate: ▪ Self-paced tasks ▪ Strategy training ▪ Few changes in:  Crystallized reasoning — factual and procedural knowledge Metacognitive knowledge — knowing what you know Burnout - The emotional exhaustion caused by stressful working conditions - Causes: o Long-term job stress o Work with high emotional demands o Unsupportive work environment o Excessive work assignments o Lack of encouragement from supervisors Social and Emotional Development in Middle Adulthood (Ch.15) - Erikson’s Theory Recap: Generativity vs. Stagnation o Generativity ▪ Reaching out to others in ways that give to and guide the next generation ▪ extending commitment beyond sel and partner ▪ May be realized through parenting or other family, work, and mentoring relationships o Stagnation ▪ Self-centered, self-indulgent, and self-absorbed ▪ Lack of interest in young people - Possible Selves o Definition: what one hopes to become or fears becoming o Becomes fewer in number, more modest and realistic with age o Rely more on time-based comparisons vs. social comparisons o Can be redefined by the individual, permitting affirmation of the self o Play protective role in self-esteem - Self-acceptance, Autonomy, Environmental Mastery o Gains in expertise, practical problem solving o Increase in: ▪ Self-acceptance — feeling good about oneself ▪ Autonomy — less concern about what others think; able to make our own decisions ▪ Environmental mastery — problem-solving, predicting events, knowing how to deal with everyday situations - Big Five Personality Traits (OCEAN)  o Openess to experience o Conscientiousness — through, reliable, and responsible o Extroversion o Agreeableness o Neuroticism — moodiness, emotional sensitivity - Changes in Big Five Personality Traits with Age o Greater emotion regulation, emotional stability, in midlife o By midlife, the brain is less reactive to emotions o Social, economic, and emotional factors impact emotional and social development during midlife o Everyday experiences can lead to changes in overall personality ▪ Increase — agreeableness and consciousness ▪ Decrease — neuroticism ▪ Slight decrease: extroversion and openness o Parenting and relationships in Middle Adulthood ▪ Ties to both older and younger generations ▪ Well-established friendships ▪ Launching — culmination of “letting go” process: Decline in parental authority Continued contact, affection, supportive children Adjusting to in-laws Kin keeper role, especially for mothers ▪ For many people, a liberating time Sense of completion Opportunity to strengthen social ties, rekindle interests 12/4 Notes Caring for Aging Parents - Sandwich generation - Factors include finances, location, gender, culture - Highly successful: o Time devoted to care averages 10 to 20 hours per week, more for women o Emotional strain of witnessing parents’s decline o Greatest stress for those sharing a household with ill parent What Makes Relationships Hard? - Poor communication, lack of empathy and accountability  - Unfair division of household chores, sharing household tasks - Disruptive use of technology - Unrealistic expectations, rigid sex roles - Lack of emotional and social health due to deficiency in early life - Substance use/abuse - Stigma against mental health treatment - Around the world, nearly 1 in 12 adults have depression, slightly fewer have an anxiety disorder - People in midlife do not quickly bounce back from long-term unemployment Ch.16 Physical and Cognitive development in Late Adulthood What is LateAdulthood - Most diverse period of the lifespan - Traditionally begins when we consider ourselves “old” and ends in death - Begins around age 65, not universal - Divided by age: o Young-old: the term for adults who are between ages 65 and 74 o Middle-old: the term for adults who are between ages 75 and 84 o Oldest-old: The term for adults who are 85 and older - Aging is often associated with declines in the speed of memory, executive function, and sensory systems Functional Age - Actual competence and performance may not match chronological age - No single biological measure can predict rate of aging - How you age is related primarily to your life experience Factors Contributing to Long Life - Heredity — Physical and cognitive health closely linked - Environment and lifestyle: o Healthy diet, normal weight, exercise o Low substance use o Tough minded, independent, optimistic o Social support o Community involvement o Learning — intellectual challenges boost cognitive health 12/9 Notes Neurocognitive Disorders (NCDs) - Mid to severe difficulties with thinking and independent functioning - Caused by interaction between genes and life experience. Triggered by environmental influences - Differences between NCD and typical aging include difficulty with Alzheimer’s Disease - Higher incidence with age — about 45% over age 85 - Symptoms — forgetting , disorientation, personality change, depression, motor problems, delusions, speech problems, aggression - Risk factors — genetics, high fat and/or high sugar diet, sedentary lifestyle, lack of cognitive challenges, chronic physical health conditions, unhealthy weight, substance use - Protective factor — learning, exercise , social connections, clean eating, sleep, having a purpose Social and Emotional Development in Late Adulthood Ch.17 Introduction - A mix of gains and losses: o Time of pleasure, children grown, life’s work nearly done, lighter responsibilities o More transitions than at any other time in the life cycle (work, health, relationships) o Concerns about physical decline, loneliness, imminent death - Reap great benefits from family, friendships, and leisure pursuits Erikson’s Theory Recap - Ego Integrity vs. Despair o Ego Integrity ▪ Feel whole, complete, satisfied with achievements ▪ Review past and make peace with self and others ▪ Better psychological well-being o Despair ▪ Feel many decisions were wrong, yet time is now too short to change or fix ▪ Bitter, unaccepting of death ▪ Expressed as anger, contempt for others  ▪ Instrumental activities of daily living Factors in Psychological Well-Being - Control vs. Dependency - Physical Health - Negative life changes - Social support, interaction, purpose - Having a variety of relationships is protective as we age - Close friendships preserve one’s memory and cognitive functioning longer than those who rely on family alone Depression and Suicide - Increased suicide risk in older adults - Highest rate of the lifespan, especially after age 85 - Factors: o Losses: retirement, widowhood, social isolation o Reduced physical functioning or pain o Social isolation, lack of personal control - Effective treatment: o Antidepressant medication plus therapy o Help in coping with life transitions Social Theories of Aging - Continuity Theory o Personality/identity stays the same with age o Focus on activities that bring life satisfaction o Preservation of personal history - Activity Theory o Emphasis on emotionally fulfilling relationships o Staying connected/involved with the world Good for elderly and community Social Theories of Aging, Cont’d - Social Selectively Theory o Prioritize social connections and emotional well-being o No concern about long-term goals o More selective about whom they spend time with 12/11 Notes Widowhood - Most stressful life event for many - One-third of older adults are widowed - Most live alone, cope with loneliness - Reorganized life harder for men o More physical, mental health problems Adjusting to Retirement - Most people adapt well - 10% to 30% report some adjustment difficulties - Factors in adjustment o Workplace factors o Financial worries o Spouse influence o Sense of personal control Elder maltreatment - Physical abuse - Neglect (physical) or lack of protection from harm - Emotional abuse - Sexual abuse - Financial abuse - Usually a trusted family member or caregiver - Nursing homes a major concern Risk factors for Elder Maltreatment - Dependency of victim - Dependency of perpetrator: emotional or financial - Psychological disturbances and stress of perpetrator - History of family violence - Institutional conditions: more common in low-quality nursing homes Ch.18 — The End of Life (Epilogue) The Biology of Death - Terminal decline: changes in cognition, processing, and/or personality, which signify that a person is nearing death  - Terminal agitation: A condition in which a dying person becomes restless, upset, and/or delirious - Terminal lucidity: an unexpected return to consciousness or cognitive clarity in people who are at the end of life Standardized Methods of Defining Death - Clinical death: The stage in the dying process when breathing and heart stop. Medical providers use the term cardiac arrest rather than clinical death - Brain death: Irreversible brain damage leading to inability to function and respond. No electrical activity in any part of the brain - Persistent Vegetative State: Brain stem is active, but cerebral cortex no longer registers electrical activity Death with Dignity - Respect of the dying person’s life is provided by quality communication and overall care: o Assurance of support o Compassionate care o Esteem and respect o Candidness about death’s certainty o Information to make reasoned end-of-life choices Kubler-Ross Theory - Stage theory of dying that was later adapted to the grieving process o Denial o Anger o Bargaining o Depression o Acceptance - Stages are not a fixed sequence, not universal - Best seen as coping strategies 12/13Notes End of Life Medical Practices - Ending life-sustaining treatment: o Withholding or withdrawing treatment, permitting patient to die naturally o Advance directive DNR - Physician-assisted suicide — helping a dying person Grief and Loss - Tried is shaped by the culture that surrounds us - Disenfranchised grief — grief that is not recognized by the greater community - Anticipatory grief — the feeling of loss and sadness that begins before a death - Continueddisplay rles (grieving rules): o Families, cultures and communities often dictate how, when, and how long we can share our grief Grief Processes - Avoidance o “Emotional anesthesia” - Confirmation o Most intense grief - Restoration o Coping with loss, dealing with household and financial tasks o Alternative between dealing with emotions and with life changes Celebrating Lives - Death is: o A natural transition o An opportunity to celebrate life o A time to share memories and stories of those who have come before o A way to hold on to connections made and learn from one another Reading Notes What is Middle Adulthood Objectives - What are the historical and contemporary markers of middle adulthood? - What factors trigger aging, and how do adults age during middle adulthood? Adulthood  - Both cognitive growth and aging characterize this life stage o We typically begin middle adulthood in our 30s as we establish independent lives, and we reach the end of middle adulthood as we recognize our own old age, often in our 60s or 70s - How you define middle adulthood depends on your ethnotheories about aging along with your age, health, and the place and time in which you live o Many people in less affluent nations tell researchers that they think middle age ends at about age 55 — this may be expected in countries where many adults die in their early 60s o Adults in most affluent nations believe middle adulthood does not end until they reach their mid-60s ▪ Improvement in health care means that middle adulthood lasts longer and longer for many of us — especially in those more developed countries where technology has improved dramatically ▪ As a result of the improvement of healthcare, middl adulthood in many nations is the longest stage in the lifespan: more than 30 years - Developmental change in middle adulthood results from physical maturation and life events that are often unique and unpredictable o Adults are diverse because the critical events that change them, and do not happen in the same sequence for everyone o The milestone of middle age often include exciting events like marriage, new jobs, or the birth of children or grandchildren, and more troubling ones like the death off a parent or divorce Changing Body - Most humans are at peak physical strength, fertility, and sensory acuity in their late 20s o Timeline of Physical Aging — typical level of physical function declines ▪ Vision — Prebyopia becomes common in middle adulthood Presbyopia is when you have difficulty seeing close-up and this becomes more prevalent as you age. It affects about 8 in 10 adults by the time they are 50 ▪ Muscle strength — Strength tends to peak in our 20s and 30s. Muscle performance tends to dip slightly with age, although how much it changes depends on how active we are — regular exercise becomes even more important in middle adulthood for maintaining muscle mass and physical resilience ▪ Muscle endurance — will peak in late 30s and early 40s  Muscle performance tends to dip slightly with age, although how much it changes depends on how active we are ▪ Hormonal changes — In people with ovaries, menopause marks the end of their regular menstrual cycle People with ovaries and testes experience changes in their levels of hormones including estrogen and testosterone ▪ Fertility — Ovary fertility peaks in the early 20sand begins to decline significantly after 30. Sperm fertility begins to decline, but more slowly after 30 Ova become less likely to mature and be fertilized after age 35. Sperm also tends to degrade in quantity and quality although changes happen later and are more subtle The Mechanics of Aging - Aging, like maturation, is triggered by genetic changes in cells and some of those changes are inevitable. o Regardless of life experiences or environmental exposure, the telomeres at the end of each chromosome and the epigenetic marks at the edges of DNA will begin to wear way, although the pace of these changes may vary - Everyone ages, yet there is tremendous diversity in how and when it happens. Your environment, individual health, and gender all play a part o Individual health: ▪ Some adults are physically and genetically younger than others who are the same age — adults in the top conditions age more slowly than their peers ▪ Adults with poor health tend to age more quickly o Gender: ▪ People who identify as men are more likely to experience disability and ill health in middle age because they are less likely to seek early medical attention ▪ Women experience more dramatic changes in their reproductive systems and more significant repercussions of ageism o Adversity and life stress takes a toll on our bodies, which accelerates in middle age — this is called weathering. ▪ Early aging happens to people from all backgrounds when the are hit by major stresses or emotional distress, such as discrimination, intimate partner violence, or depression  o The physical environment, from the air we breathe to the water we drink, are potential factors that can direct the pace of aging during middle adulthood ▪ Hazardous chemicals in polluted air are linked to epigenetic changes associated with aging Changes to Vision and Hearing - As we get older, the lens of he eye gradually becomes less flexible, making it difficult to focus on small objects — this is called presbyopia or farsightedness o This begins around age 40 and becomes nearly universal on adults over 55 o Left unaddressed, presbyopia can lead to eye strain, headaches, and isolation, as reading and working become increasingly difficult - Hearing does not stay the same as we age, nor do we lose it overnight. o Some subtle degradation in our ability to hear high-pitched tones is apparent in out 20s o Typically, by age 40, hearing loss is more noticeable as adults may be less able to hear certain sounds or pick up what someone is saying in a nosiy environment o The gradual decline is known as age-related hearing loss, or presbycusis ▪ It is caused by breakdown in the nerves and hair cells in he ears, and in the auditory nerves that connect to the brain o Making adjustments and seeking support can also facilitate communication with partners, children, and coworkers ▪ Without intervention, hearing loss can increase the risk for isolation and even cognitive decline as e age Changes in Skin and Hair - As we age, the stem cell in our hair follicles that produce pigment gradually die off, and hair begins to turn gray — the precise timing of this depends on stress and genetics o Trauma can affect this — traumatic stress can kill off the pigment-producing stem cells in the scalp, making it possible to go gray overnight - Hair loss is another predictable sign of aging — there is a strong genetic component to this process o Lighter skinned men are more likely to lose their hair at earlier ages than men of color, who tend to keep their hair until they are in their mid-40s o Scientific research and often pricey interventions, from topical medications t hair transplantation, have been developed to forestall and even reverse the process  - As adults get older, skin begins to show wear and tear from the sun, pollution, and the pressures of gravity o Skin itself begins to thin, the fat that supports facial features slowly fades, wrinkles appear, and color may become uneven o Pollution and sun exposure take a faster toll on light skin, which typically shows early signs of aging at about age 30, long before adults with darker skin o Changes in estrogen in people with ovaries trigger acceleration in the superficial markers of aging after menopause Changes in Fertility and Sexuality - Aging has a profound effect on the reproductive system and imposes some constraints on fertility, however, it does not have the same effect on sexuality o While fertility has some limits, sexuality does not - One challenge to fertility is that ova begin to show the signs of age as adults reach their 40s o This process is slow — the ova is most healthy when adults are in their 20s, but not until after about age 35 that the decline becomes significant o By the time ova are 40, each ovum is less likely to be healthy, and adults have fewer chances of getting pregnant ▪ Ova are particularly delicate — by age 40, they are about 90% less likely to be fertilized and implanted as they were at age 20. Sperm also age — older sperm are linked to an increase in miscarriage Menopause - A decline in fertility is just one of the hormonal changes many people experience in midlife o The ovaries not only stop maturing ova, but they also stop releasing as many hormones, like estrogen and testosterone, into the bloodstream ▪ As a result, menstrual periods become irregular and eventually end — this long process is known as menopause which typically lasts between 4 and 10 years o For most adults with ovaries, the early signs of menopause, known as perimenopause, begins in the mid-40s and last for 2 to 5 years o The precise timing is a complex interplay of genetics and environment — epigenetic mechanisms help regulate menopause  ▪ Accelerated aging, particularly in people who have experienced significant adversity, illness, or trauma, may be one reason some adults experience menopause earlier in lower-resourced countries o These hormonal changes can be challenging ▪ More than 80% pf people who go through menopause experience hot flashes — these are unpredictable moments of extreme sweat that happen at night, nut for some they may also occur during the day ▪ More than two out of three people going through menopause report some cognitive difficulties, such as forgetfulness Such difficulties are associated with sleep disruptions — hot flashes cause interrupted sleep, and lack of sleep can cause memory problems ▪ Rates of depression also rise around the time of menopause, which is connected to the drop of estrogens levels and lack of sleep - While there is no intervention that can prevent menopause, there are ways to make the transition easier — there are safe and effective interventions that can ease some of the symptoms of menopause o Short-term hormonal therapy during the peak of the menopausal transition can help ease hot flashes, improving sleep o An alternative to hormonal therapy — antidepressant medications have been shown to be effective in treating hot flashes o Painful sex may be addressed by lubricants or topically applied hormones - The end of fertility does not mean the end of sexual desire, but it may lead to some challenges o There may be a lack of of vaginal lubrication that makes intimacy more uncomfortable ad even painful o In many communities, menopause is stigmatized o Medical interventions for menopause have a controversial history Impact of Age on Testes and Sperm - People with testes experience reproductive system changes as they age, but in a more gradual way than those with ovaries o People with testes experience slight declines in their sex hormones of about 2% a year during middle adulthood — these small changes do not seem to affect health or sexuality o Fertility also dips as people with testes age — some measure of sperm quality does not remain at peak due to age and environmental exposure  ▪ Sperm counts are a barometer of health — people who are healthy tend to have healthier sperm, and those with chronic conditions tend to have fewer sperm that can produce a baby ▪ Environmental contamination, lack of sleep, and unhealthy weight are contributing factors that have caused an overall decline in sperm count - Erectile dysfunction (ED) is the inability to maintain an erection and is common among men o As men reach 50, more than 1 in 5 will typically report erectile difficulties o Erectile dysfunction is closely linked with health — those who are inactive, and those who have cardiovascular disease or diabetes, are more likely to develop ED o Widely promoted medications like Viagra or Cialis can help by relaxing the muscles around the penis, allowing for extra blood flow to maintain an erection — this is not always a perfect solution ▪