PSYC107- Human Sexuality: Historical Perspectives PDF

PSYC107- HUMAN SEXUALITY Perspectives on Sexuality 1 At the completion of Explain Trace Explain this unit the historical the evolution of sex the role media play students perspectives as a...

PSYC107- HUMAN SEXUALITY Perspectives on Sexuality 1 At the completion of Explain Trace Explain this unit the historical the evolution of sex the role media play students perspectives as a science in shaping the on human through the major understanding and should be able sexuality contributors to the study of human expressions of our sexuality to: sexuality 2 Sexuality in the Western World: A Historical Perspective 3  Judaism By the time Hebraic culture was established, gender roles were highly specialized. The Hebrew Bible, lists the duties of a good wife: she must instruct servants care for her family keep household account obey her husband. Procreation (especially the bearing of sons) was essential- the Hebrews’ history of being subjugated, persecuted, and enslaved made them determined to preserve their people) Sex within marriage was believed to be more than a reproductive necessity- they had a joyful appreciation for sexuality. This was overshadowed by Christianity. 4  Christianity Christianity developed during the later years of the Roman Empire, a period of social instability. Many exotic cults had been imported from Greece, Persia, and other parts of the empire to provide sexual entertainment and amusement. Early Christians separated themselves from these practices by associating sex with sin. We know little about Jesus’s specific views on sexuality. Paul of Tarsus, a follower of Christianity had a crucial influence on the early church. Many of his writings were incorporated into the bible’s New Testament. Believed that all things of the flesh were bad, and only things of the spirit were good—or “godly” Emphasized the importance of overcoming “desires of the flesh”—including anger, selfishness, hatred, and nonmarital sex—in order to inherit the Kingdom of God. He associated spirituality with sexual abstinence and saw celibacy- the state of being unmarried and therefore abstaining from sexual intercourse, as superior to marriage. Sex, which is essential for reproduction, was a necessary but religiously denigrated act. 5  Sex as Sinful Church fathers later expanded on the theme of sex as sin. The bishop Augustine (354–430) declared that lust was the original sin of Adam and Eve Intercourse could rightly take place only within marriage, for procreation He believed that female subordination was intrinsic to God’s creation, which led to the idea that any intercourse position other than the one with the man on top was “unnatural”. 6  Middle Ages During the Middle Ages attitudes toward sex varied from era to era and place to place, but the belief that sex was sinful persisted throughout. Theologian Thomas Aquinas (1224–1274) maintained that human sexual organs were designed for procreation and any other use—as in same- sex acts, oral–sex, or anal sex—was against God’s will, heretical, and a “crime against nature.” The withdrawal method (pulling the penis out of the vagina just before ejaculation) to avoid pregnancy was the most serious sin and could require a penance of fasting on bread and water for years. “Unnatural acts” of oral or anal sex were also viewed as gravely sinful and drew more severe penances than murder (Fox, 1995). Same-sex relations precluded the possibility of reproduction and consisted of many “unnatural acts” that were condemned by Aquinas. 7  Eve vs Mary Initially, Mary was a figure of secondary importance in the Western church. Her status was elevated and she became more prominent when the Crusaders brought to the West a view of Mary as a gracious, compassionate protector and an exalted focus of religious devotion. The medieval image of Eve as the temptress in the Garden of Eden provided a counterpoint to the unattainable, compassionate Virgin Mary. Increased emphasis on Eve’s sin ultimately resulted in heightened antagonism toward women. 8  Witch Hunts This antagonism reached its climax in the witch hunts led by the Catholic Church in continental Europe and the British Isles. They began in the late 15th century—after the Renaissance was well under way—and lasted for close to 200 years. Witchcraft was blamed on carnal lust, and most “witches” were accused of engaging in sexual orgies with the devil (Wiesner-Hanks, 2000). While Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603) brought England to new heights, an estimated 100,000 women were executed as witches in Europe between the 15th and 18th centuries (Pinker, 2011). 9  Sex Positive Shift Sex as sinful was modified by Protestant reformers of the 16th century. Both Martin Luther (1483–1546) and John Calvin (1509–1564) recognized the value of sex in marriage (Berman & Berman, 2005). Calvin suggested that marital sex was permissible if it stemmed “from a desire for children, to avoid fornication, to lighten and ease the cares and sadnesses of household affairs, or to endear each other” (Taylor, 1971, p. 62). The Puritans, often criticized for having rigid views about sex, also shared an appreciation of sexual expression within marriage (Wiesner-Hanks, 2000). Enlightenment (18th century) brought scientific rationalism Women such as Mary Wollstonecraft of England, were acknowledged for their intelligence, wit, and vivacity. Wollstonecraft’s book A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) attacked the limited gender roles for females, such as the prevailing practice of giving young girls dolls rather than schoolbooks. She asserted that sexual satisfaction was as important to women as to men and that premarital and extramarital sex was not sinful 10  The Victorian Era Progressive views did not prevail for long- the Victorian era, brought a sharp turnaround. Women’s sexuality was polarized between the images of Madonna (the whore) and Eve Upper- and middle-class Victorian women in Europe and the USA were valued for their delicacy and ladylike manners; they were constrained by restrictive devices like corsets and hoops, this presumed fragility limited women’s roles both at home and in the outside world. Women’s roles fulfilling their families’ spiritual needs providing a comfortable home for their husbands to retreat to after working all day. 11  The Victorian Era Men and women’s roles were separate Victorians encouraged self-restraint in all aspects of their lives, including their sexual lives, and Victorian men were expected to conform. Interestingly, prostitution flourished during this period because Victorian men often set morality aside in the pursuit of sexual companionship. This gender-role separation created a sexual and emotional distance in many Victorian marriages. Victorian men could smoke, drink, joke, and find sexual companionship with the women who had turned to prostitution out of economic necessity, whereas their wives were constrained by expectations of modesty and sexual repression. At this time women’s sexuality was polarized between the opposing images of Madonna and whore, and men were trapped between the ideal of purity and the pleasures of sexual expression. 12 Slavery and Sexuality- 19th Century An extreme manifestation of gender roles and sexuality was imposed on Black slaves in the United States; stereotypes of Black sexuality provided a justification for the institution of slavery and White power. Europeans’ reactions in their initial interaction with Black Africans set the stage for the denigration of Black sexuality during slavery- dehumanizing blacks as animalistic and oversexed “heathens” gave many White slave owners a rationale for exploitation and domination (Moran, 2001). The dominant image of Black womanhood was the Jezebel—a seductress with an insatiable sexual appetite. 13  Slavery and Sexuality Enslaved women lacked clothing to cover their bodies “properly,” and their work in the fields and the house often required them to raise their dresses above their knees—nothing a “decent” woman would do. During slave sales they were stripped naked so that prospective buyers could closely examine their bodies, including their genitals- the irrational logic that no self-respecting woman would allow herself to be put on such display was used by Whites to confirm Black women’s unrestrained nature. Slave owners publicly discussed female slaves’ reproductive capacity and managed their “breeding” (often by the slave owner and his sons), forcing sex on them. 14  Slavery and Sexuality The "Mammy" stereotype served as a counterpoint to the Jezebel image, portraying enslaved Black women as loyal, obedient, and asexual, reflecting the supposed success of slave owners in "civilizing" them, including their sexuality. Mammy was depicted as a nurturing caretaker, responsible for cooking, cleaning, and raising White children, even nursing infants. This labor allowed White women to uphold their refined, ladylike status. The male complement to the Jezebel was the stereotype of the highly sexual, potentially violent Black man. Whites exploited Black men’s ability to work and to produce offspring, often suggesting Black men had a highly fertile, larger-than-White-sized penis. The fabricated threat of sexual seduction of White women and racist logic sanctioned the tools necessary to control Black men- they were beaten, whipped, castrated, and lynched with impunity. 15  20th Century Sigmund Freud led in changing perspectives about sexuality in the 20th century with his belief that sexuality was innate in women as well as in men which helped expand Victorian concepts about sexuality. Havelock Ellis’ book On Life and Sex (1920), emphasized “the love-rights of women,” and regarded any sexual practice including masturbation and homosexuality, previously considered “perversions”—as healthy so long as no one was harmed. Women’s suffrage movement began in the late 19th century but did not usher in equality though it brought the right to vote. Subsequent historical events and technology brought new sexual perspectives and possibilities. 16  20th Century U.S. involvement in World War I created an environment for increased equality and flexibility of gender roles, as thousands of women left the traditional homemaker role and took paying jobs for the first time. American men serving as soldiers in Europe were introduced to the more open sexuality there. Mass production of automobiles increased independence [for returning home soldiers] and privacy for young people’s sexual explorations. Movies presented romance and sex symbols for public entertainment. Young, urban, single, middleclass women rejected the ideals of Victorian restraint for short, slinky dresses and the exuberant, close-contact dancing of the Roaring Twenties. Increased prevalence of kissing and sexual activity short of intercourse among young unmarried people that went beyond acceptable Victorian standards Women usually avoided premarital intercourse to prevent pregnancy and jeopardizing their reputations. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, social norms shifted toward more restrained behavior. The challenges of the era prompted the introduction of laws granting women the right to access contraceptive information and devices. Prior to the discovery of penicillin in the 1940s, there were no effective treatments for life-threatening sexually transmitted infections. 17 After World War II Living in the suburbs became the ideal and goal of middleclass families- man was breadwinner. Women left the workplace and devoted themselves to their homes, children, and husbands. Women who worked outside the home were neurotic and suffered from “penis envy.” The fashion industry “refeminized” women with clothing that emphasized the bustline and small waist and featured full skirts. 18  After World War II During the postwar retreat into traditional gender roles, Alfred Kinsey and associates’ Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) were best sellers Kinsey’s data pertaining to the prevalence of women’s sexual interest and response were particularly shocking as it showed surprising statistics on same-sex behavior, masturbation, and novel acts in the bedroom which contributed to the growing acceptance of a variety of sexual behaviors. 19  20th Century 1950s- American television emphasized suburban social conformity and featured sitcoms portraying married couples in separate beds, The first issue of Playboy, which emphasized sex as recreation. 1960’s- after the flurry of post–World War II marriages, the baby boom, and widespread disappointment in the resulting domesticity of women— a new movement for gender-role equality began. The oral contraceptive pill, the intrauterine device (IUD), morning-after pills, and spermicides gave women independence 1965- the Supreme Court made contraceptive use by married couples legal 1972- contraceptive use by unmarried individuals was legal. The acceptance of contraception allowed sexuality to be separated from procreation as never before in Western cultures. 20  20th Century Late1960s & 1970s- attitudes began to change toward homosexuality- Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people began to openly declare their identities and to argue that such a personal matter should not affect their rights and responsibilities as citizens. 1973- the American Psychiatric Association removed homosexuality from its diagnostic categories of mental disorders. 1980s- the first AIDS diagnosis, “gay plague” dramatically increased the visibility of LGBT individuals and amplified both negative and positive public sentiments toward homosexuality. Mid-1990s- television began to incorporate some LGBT characters into programming. 21 MEDIA AND SEXUALITY 22  Media The explosion of media technology has flooded us with exposure to sexual words and images. Increased amounts and explicitness of sexual content have accompanied the huge technological advances. We will briefly examine two forms of media: traditional media (e.g., television, music videos, advertising) and new media (e.g., the Internet and social media). 23 Television Likely has a significant effect on sexual attitudes and behaviors, given the amount of time people spend watching it. By the time we are 18 years old, each of us has watched TV for an average of 20,000 hours, enough time for it to influence our perspectives about sexuality. Recent analyses of television content indicate that sexual content appears in approximately 82% of all television programs. Shows that have pushed sexual boundaries- Sex and the City, The L-Word, Big Brother etc. Many depictions of sexuality in the media may trivialize the complexity of sexuality and create unrealistic expectations regarding sexual experiences. The ways sexual issues are presented on television have beneficial effects, promoting greater knowledge, tolerance, and positive social change (abuse, safe sex, consent, LGBT issues) 24  Music Videos Most music videos (depending on the type of music) have some type of sexual content that has become more overt and explicit over time. Often portray men as dominant and aggressive and women as sexual objects. Exposure to more sexually explicit music videos is associated with stronger endorsement of the sexual double standard (Zhang et al., 2008). Studies have found that adolescents who listened to music with degrading sexual lyrics were twice as likely to have had sexual intercourse and engaged in a greater variety of sexual activities compared with adolescents who had the least exposure to songs with degrading lyrics. 25  Advertising Present in most forms of media or stands alone, e.g. billboards or bus ads. Sexual images can be blatant or subtle and are designed to help attract attention and sell products- high sex appeal ads are powerful marketing tools. Advertising relies on the false promises that love or sex or both will come with the acquisition of a certain beauty product, brand of liquor, brand of clothing, sound system, or car. Most sexual content in advertising trivializes sex and reinforces the idea that only young, hard male and female bodies merit attraction. 26 Magazines Contain a range of sexually related articles including excellent information about self- help, relationship skills, promoting stereotypical gender roles, body-image insecurity, superficiality, and manipulation in relationships. Research has shown that more frequent reading of mainstream magazines among college students is associated with more consistent use of contraceptives and with greater sexual health knowledge and safe-sex behaviors Exposure to sexualized material in magazines among adolescent boys is related to higher gender-stereotypical beliefs and objectification of women. Articles can reinforce gender stereotypes, performance pressure, overemphasis on techniques Ubiquitous information telling readers how to make themselves prettier, skinnier, and sexier (“Boy Magnet Beauty”) may contribute to body-image insecurity (Moore, 2010 27  New Media and Sexuality On average, Americans now spend almost half of each day looking at a screen and over 43 million people spend over 20 hours a week on the Internet—a figure that nearly doubled between 2008–2015. Distance and cultural barriers are becoming presenting incredible possibilities for sharing ideas and meeting new people including potential romantic partners. Sex education materials and conversations provided through digital and social media can provide quick access to useful information related to sexuality and may already be the primary form of sex education for many. Online dating has increased and it has the advantages of clarifying one’s agenda for a relationship up front, whether one is seeking casual sex or a life partner. Dating-app fatigue? Porn sites attract more visitors than Netflix, Amazon and Twitter combined- Webcam live action for masturbation, multiplayer interactive sex games, posting sexual content as self expression, online chatrooms to discuss sexual fantasies 28 Thank you