PSYC Final Review PDF

PSYC Final Review Chapter 1: [Scientific Thinking] 1. Psychology: is the study of the mind, brain, and soul. [Behaviour is multi-determinded] -​ Involves both social and biological factors. 2. Levels of Analysis: top = mind, bottom = brain [ladder] - Social Cultural Influence [So...

PSYC Final Review Chapter 1: [Scientific Thinking] 1. Psychology: is the study of the mind, brain, and soul. [Behaviour is multi-determinded] -​ Involves both social and biological factors. 2. Levels of Analysis: top = mind, bottom = brain [ladder] - Social Cultural Influence [Social and Behaviour Level] - Psychological [Mental or Neurological Level] - Biological [Molecular or Neurochemical Level] 3. Common Sense: is our gut intuition and initial feeling. They contain our own biases and our judgmental overconfidence. 4. Naive Realism: believing what we see is how it is. Scientific Approach: how we protect ourselves from naive realism. - We scientifically gather and evaluate empirical evidence - Minimize biases. - Empirical evidence is info. acquired by experimenting and observing. 5. Theory: the explanation of large findings in the natural world. [General explanations that constantly change] 6. Hypothesis: a testable prediction. [Specific predictions from the theory] 7. Confirmation Bias: seeking or distorting evidence that supports our beliefs. 8. Belief Perseverance: ignoring evidence and sticking to the initial theory, although evidence suggests opposing ideas. "Do not confuse me with the facts." 9. Reciprocal Determinism: people mutually influencing each other. 10. Pseudoscience: claims that seem scientific, but they are not. [95% self-help books are fake] -​ Ad Hoc Immunizing Hypothesis: loophole defenders of a theory used to protect it from being proven. -​ Lack of self-correction -​ Overreliance of anecdotes. 11. 7 Warning Signs of Pseudoscience: - Exaggerated claims [ex: 3 simple steps will change your life forever] - Overreliance of Anecdotes (ex: someone I know does yoga, and she said.....] - Absence of Connection to Other Research [ex: new innovation in research has shown that eye massages result in increasing reading speeds 10x faster than average] - Lack of Review by Other Scholars (peer-review) [ex: 50 studies by the company all show overwhelming success] - Lack of Self-Correction [ex: although scientists say we use 100% of our brain, we've found to use additional brain power than previously covered) - Psychobabble (words that sound scientific; becomes confusing)  - Talk of 'Proof' Instead of Evidence [ex: our program is proven to reduce anxiety by 50%] People are drawn to pseudoscience because it is everywhere, and people do not know how to detect what is scientifically accurate or pseudoscience. Pseudoscience beliefs are widespread. 12. Logical Fallacies are safeguards against pseudoscience. Traps in thinking that can lead to mistaken conclusions. - Not-me Fallacy: thinking you are safe from falling from a fallacy; immune to errors. - Emotional Reasoning Fallacy: using emotions as guides to evaluate claims - Bandwagon Fallacy: assuming a claim because everyone else does - Either-or Fallacy: framing a question as though we can answer it in 1-2 ways - Appeal to Authority Fallacy: accepting a claim endorsed by someone w/ authority. - Genetic Fallacy: confusing the correctness of a claim with its origins/genesis. 13. Scientific Skepticism: evaluating claims with an open mind but insisting on persuasive evidence. [critical thinking] 14. 6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: - Ruling out Rival Hypothesis [looking at alternative or multiple opinions and adding evidence to our hypothesis] - Correlation Isn’t Causation [assuming 2 variables relation] “third-variable problem” - Falsifiability [can it be proven wrong] - Replicability [can the study be replicated] - Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence - Occam’s Razor [if there are 2 competing ideas, pick the simpler one] 15. William Wundt: developed the first psychological lab - Introspection: asking subjective people questions about how they experience the world. [leading figure, goal, and last effect] 16. Structuralism: [E.B. Titchener] - Goal: used introspection to identify basic structures of experiences. Why do we see colour? Influenced by Charles Darwin’s “natural selection” theory and evolutionism. - Lasting Effect: The importance of observation in studying conscious experiences. 17. Functionalism: [William James] - Goal: understanding functions/adaptive purposes of thoughts, feelings, & behaviours. - Lasting Effect: evolution and adaptation have shaped human thought and behaviour. 18. Behaviouralism: [BF Skinner & John B. Watson] - Goal: understanding the principles of learning that explain all behaviour. - Lasting Effect: created influential models of human and animal learning. 19. Cognitivism: [Jean Piaget] - Goal: examine the mental processes of behaviour. - Lasting Effect: cognitive neuroscience; he uncovered basic processes that allow for complex human abilities. 20. Psychoanalysis: [Sigmund Freud]  - Goal: uncover the role of psychological processes and early life experiences. - Lasting Effect: understanding that our mental processes are beyond conscious awareness. 21. Nature vs. Nurture Debate: is behaviour due to genes or our environment/experiences. 22. Free Will vs. Determinism Debate: behaviour freely selected or caused by factors beyond our control. 23. Emic Approach: studying the behaviour of someone who grew up in that culture. 24. Etic Approach: studying someone from the outside looking in. 25. Patternicity: detecting patterns in meaningless data. [occurs with a lack of control] -​ Basic Research: how the mind works. -​ Applied Research: examines how we use basic research to solve problems.  Chapter 2: [Research Methods] 1. System 1 Thinking: intuitive, fast, and gut reactions. “heuristics” 2. System 2 Thinking: slow and analytical. 3. Heuristics: general rules of thumb and what we think we should follow. 4. Random Selection: an equal chance for a community to participate in research. more random = more generalized results become. 5. 2 Ways to Evaluate Scientific Measures: -​ Reliability: the consistency of measurements. Test-retest reliability: consistent results Interrater reliability: different researchers get the same results. -​ Validity: the extent to which a measure assesses what it claims to measure. Reliability is NEEDED for validity, but validity is NOT NEEDED for reliability. [lie detector] 6. Reproducibility: ability to reanalyze the data from a study and find the same results. 7. Replicability: duplicate the original results 8. Replicability Crisis: the repetitive failures within psychological science to confirm many high-profile findings among researchers. Descriptive Design: 9. Naturalistic Observation: observing in a natural environment. +​ High External Validity: the extent of generalizing findings to the real-world. +​ captures natural behaviour -​ Low Internal Validity: the extent we understand cause-and-effect. -​ observer bias and reactivity 10. Case Studies: in-depth analysis +​ rares phenomenon/existence proof +​ good for hypothesis generation -​ no cause and effect -​ observe bias -​ generalization 11. Self-Report: questionnaires, interviews, and diary entries. +​ easy to administer -​ assumes own self-insight and honesty -​ Malingering: appearing psychologically disturbed when you're not. -​ Halo Effect: rating one positive characteristic which influences the rating of another. -​ Horn Effect: individuals believe that negative traits are connected. 12. Correlational Designs: examining the extent 2 variables are related. +​ more flexible +​ easier than experimental -​ cannot explain causation “Third Variable Problem.” Correlation Coefficient range is [-1.0 - 1.0], the strength of the relationship. Scatterplot: the score of psychological phenomenon. [a data point]  Positive correlation = 1.0 Negative correlation = -1.0 Zero correlation = 0 13. Illusory Correlation: no statistical relationship between variables. 14. Experimental Design: random assignment of participants to conditions & manipulation. -​ Random Assignment: each person has an equal opportunity to be in an experimental or controlled group. -​ Manipulating Independent Variable Independent Variable: what is manipulated Dependent Variable: what is measured Extraneous Variable: a variable that can affect the outcome. 15. Within-Subject Design: participants serve as their own control. 16 Between-Subject Design: assigning different groups. [control and experimental] 17. 5 Pitfalls of Experimental Design: -​ Placebo Effect: improving from the mere expectations of improvement. -​ Nocebo Effect: harm from the mere expectation of harm. -​ Experimenter Expectancy Effect: unintentional bias; putting specific people in specific groups. -​ Demand Characteristics: participants guess the study’s purpose and change their behaviour. -​ Hawthorne Effect: knowledge of them being studied influences their behaviour. 18. Ethical Obligations of Researchers: -​ Informed Consent -​ Protection from Harm and Discomfort -​ Deception and Debriefing 19. Animal Research: +​ teaches us about the human brain and leads to many psychological treatments. -​ invasive research; animals typically die after research 20. Statistics: mathematically describes and analyzes data; essential to research because it explains quantifiably what researchers find. 21. Descriptive Statistics: uses mathematics Central Tendency: central scores in data or cluster points. Mean = average [40%] Median = ordering from lowest to highest. Mode = # that appears the most Variability: measures how loosely or tightly points are. Range = [highest - lowest] Standard Deviation: how far do we get from the average [highest # - mean] 22. Inferential Statistics: determines if we can generalize findings to the population. -​ Statistical Significance: probability they occurred due to chance.  -​ Practical Significance: does it hold real-world significance? 23. Evaluating Psychology in Media -​ Consider the Source [no quality control in media] -​ Sharpening: making something seem true. [exaggerating central message] -​ Levelling: making something seem not true. [minimizing central message] -​ Pseudosymmetry: being misled by seemingly balanced coverage of a study. 24. Peer-review: quality control of psychological research. 25. Extrasensory Perceptions [ESP]: they are called parapsychologists. [psychic]  Chapter 3: [Biological Psychology] 1. Phrenology: first attempt to map mind onto brain; bumpology. 2. Electroencephalography: [EEG] measures electrical activity on the outside of the brain. 3. Computed Tomography: [CT] uses x-rays to build 3D reconstruction of the brain. 4. Positron Emission Tomography: [PET] traces glucose-like molecules in brain to create an image. 5. Structural MRI: 3D structure using magnetic fields. 6. Functional MRI: [fMRI] uses magnetic fields to measure blood oxygen levels to view brain activity. 7. Deep Brain Stimulation: [DBS] battery-powered electrodes to stimulate one specific area 8. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: [TMS] applies a strong and quick magnetic field to the surface; attempting to change a brains function instead of just viewing the brain. 9. Localization of Functions: identified areas that are active during a psychological task. -​ We use 100% of our brain. 10. Neuron: nerve cells that communicate with one another. [85 million in brain] 11. Parts of a Neuron: -​ Cell Body [soma]: the central region that keeps neuron functioning. -​ Dendrites: branch-like extensions; receives information from other cells. -​ Axon: communication tunnel. -​ Myelin Sheath: gilal cells around the axon. -​ Synapse: information exchanged between cells; chemical messengers. -​ Synaptic Cleft: gap where neurotransmitters are released from the axon. -​ Synaptic Vesicles: tiny spheres containing the neurotransmitters. -​ Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers from neuron to neuron. Within the neuron is chemical. Neural communication is electrical. 12. Steps in Neurons Sending Electrical Signals: 1.​ Resting Potential: electrical level our neurons are chilling at; nothing occurs 2.​ Threshold of Excitation: high electrical charge; the membrane potential necessary to trigger an action potential. 3.​ Action Potential: firing; electrical signals carried along neurons. 4.​ Absolute Refractory Period: neuron can not fire again. 13. Receptor Sites: neurons bind to receptor sites on dendrites; neurotransmitters can be halted by reuptake. 14. List of Neurotransmitters: -​ Glutamate: main exhibitor; for sensory and learning [alcohol and sensory enhancers] -​ GABA: main inhibitor [alcohol and anti-anxiety] -​ Norepinephrine: cortical arousal to keep us awake [amphetamine and methamphetamine] -​ Acetylcholine: cortical arousal for attention, memory, & muscles. [nictotine, memory enhancers, botox]  -​ Endorphins: pain killers [morphine and heroin] -​ Anandamide: pain killers that increases appetite [THC in marijuanna; weed] -​ Dopamine: motor function, reward, and pleasure. -​ Serotonin: mood regulation, aggression, and temperature. [anti-depressents] 15. Neural Plasicity: neurons ability to change over time. -​ Changes over development and learning -​ Following an injury or degeneration 16. Central Nervous System: the brain and spinal cord. 17. 6 Parts of Central Nervous System: -​ Cerebral Cortex: outermost layer of brain. -​ Bascal Ganglia: structures within the cortex that controls movements. -​ Limbic System: system for emotions, memory, and learning. Amygdala: almond-shaped; our emotions to memories. Hippocampus: the memory of the physical layout of environment. Thalamus: connects everything in the limbic system. Hypothalamus: regulation of hormones and temperature. -​ Cerebellum: little brain; controls balance and coordinates movements. -​ Brain Stem: connects the midbrain, pons, and medulla. -​ Spinal Cord: area of communication between brain and rest of the nervous system. The central nervous system to the peripheral. Broca’s Area: in the prefrontal cortex and controls production of speech. 18: Spinal Reflex: automatic responses to stimuli. 19. 4 Lobes of the Brain: -​ Frontal Lobe: motor function, language, memory [front] -​ Parietal Lobe: touch, temperature, and pain perception [on top] -​ Temporal Lobe: auditory processing [middle] -​ Occipital Lobe: visual processing [back] 20. The Forebrain: cerebral cortex, basca ganglia, and limbic system. 21. The Midbrain: reticular activating system [RAS] controls eye movement and coordination. 22. The Hindbrain: medulla, pons, and cerebellum. -​ Medulla: regulates breathing, heartbeat & other vital functions. -​ Pons: triggers dreams & connects cortex to cerebellum. -​ Cerebellum: little brain; controls balance and coordinates movements. 23. Peripheral Nervous System: stems out from the central nervous system, spinal cord. Somatic Nervous System: things we have control over. [5 senses, posture, bodily movements] Autonomic Nervous System: involuntary, involving our internal organs and glands. - Sympathetic Nervous System: fight-or-flight response; active on emotional arousal and crisis. - Parasympathetic Nervous System: feed-and-breed system; active in rest and digest. 24. Endocrine System: system of glands that release hormones in our bloodstream. 25. Hormones: molecular chemicals in our bloodstream. -​ Neurotransmitters are transmitted across the synaptic cleft, while hormones are within our bloodstream. 26. Pituitary Glands: master glands; controls maternal and romantic love. 27. Adrenal Glands: emergency center of body. [increased with presence of stressors] -​ Releases adrenaline and cortisol in emotional arousal -​ Adrenaline boosts energy -​ Breakdown of glycogen and glucose 28. Chromosomes: thread within cells that carries genes. 29. DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid; builds our human structure. 30. Genes: genetic materials composed of DNA. 31. Genotypes: genetic makeup transmitted from our parents. 32. Phenotypes: our observable traits. Dominant Genes: masking other genes effect Recessive Genes: expressed in the absence of dominant genes 33. Heritability: the percentage a trait is passed. 34. 3 Misconceptions of Heritability: -​ It applies to groups of people -​ It does not tell us whether a trait can change -​ It is not a fixed number 35. 3 Types of Behavioural Genetic Design: -​ Family Studies -​ Twin Studies -​ Adoption Studies  Chapter 4: [Sensation and Perception] 1. Sensation: detection of physical energy by our sense organs. 2. Perception: the brain’s interpretation of stimuli or sensory information. 3. Transduction: the process where the nervous system converts external stimulus into electrical signals within neurons. 4. Psychophysics: the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on characteristics. 5. Absolute Threshold: the lowest level of change needed to detect a change 50% of the time. 6. Just Noticeable Difference: [JND] the smallest detectable change in stimuli’s intensity 7. Weber’s Law: states that there is a constant proportional relationship between JND and the original stimulus intensity. More intense the stimulus = the larger the difference. (ex: the greatest change in volume required to notice a difference) 8. Signal Detection Theory: it describes how we detect stimuli under certain conditions. -​ Hit: thinking there is a stimuli and there is one. -​ Miss: thinking there is no stimuli and there is one -​ False Alarm: thinking there is stimuli and there is none. -​ Correct Rejection: thinking there is no stimuli and there is none. 9. Attention: notice taken to a stimuli; mental filters. 10. Selective Attention: selecting one channel and tuning others out. [ex: the cocktail party effect] 11. Inattentional Blindness: failure to detect stimuli in plain slight due to attention. 12. Light Waves: -​ Amplitude: brightness -​ Wavelength: determines the colours we see -​ Purity: fewer wavelengths = greater purity 13. Parts of the Eye: -​ Scelera: white part of eye that holds its shape. -​ Iris: coloured part and controls how much light enters. -​ Pupil: circular hole where light enters and dilation occurs. -​ Cornea: curved, transparent layer that bends incomin light. -​ Lens: also bends light and focuses light to the retina, but through the accommodation process the lens changes shape. Accomidation Process: changing the shape of lens to focus on objects. -​ Retina: large area w/ neuro tissue at the back of the eye w/ receptor cells to absorb light, process images, and send information to the brain. -​ Fovea: contains cones and is responsible for acuity. Rods: visual receptors that aid night vision and peripheral vision; we have more rods. Cones: visual receptors that aid in daylight vision and colour vision. -​ Optic Nerve: the connection between the eye and brain. 14. Blindspot: the connection of the optic nerve to the retina. 15. Hyperopia: [farsightedness] difficulty seeing things close up. 16. Myopia: [nearsightedness] difficulty seeing things far away. 17. Trichromatic Theory: depends on activity of three different colours. (red, green, and blue) 18. Opponent-Process Theory: related to opposing responses of colour groups. (ex: blue and yellow, red and green) 19. The Auditory System: -​ Frequency: the rate sound waves vibrate; pitch. -​ Amplitude: loudness. -​ Timbre: the uniqueness of the sound. 20. Human frequency = 20 - 20,000Hz 21. Parts of the Ear: [Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear] Outer Ear -​ Pinna: the skin we see -​ Auditory Canal: funnels sound waves onto the eardrum. Middle Ear (3 bones) -​ Hammer -​ Anvil -​ Stirrup They all vibrate at the frequency of the soundwave and transmit them from the ear drum to the inner ear. Inner Ear -​ Cochlea: converts vibrations into neural activity; snail-shaped. Contains the organ of corti and basilar membrane. -​ Auditory Nerve: connects ear to brain 22. 2 Theories for Pitch Perception: -​ Place Theory: pitch results from vibrations of different places along specific places on the basilar membrane. -​ Frequency Theory: pitch results from the frequency of the basilar membrane vibrates. 23. Conductive Deafness: malfunctions of the ear. 24. Olfaction: smell 25. Gustation: taste 26. 5 Taste Sensitivities: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami. 27. Taste Buds: the receptor cells for taste that are on our tongue. 28. Nontasters: someone with less taste perception 29. Medium-Tasters: someone with average taste perception 30. Supertasters: someone with above average taste perception; intense taste experiences. 31. Olfaction Disorders: -​ Anosmia: loss of sense of smell -​ Hyposmia: reduced ability to smell. 32. Pheromones: odourless chemicals that are social signals between members of one species. 33. Somatosensory System: system for touch and pain perception. 34. Parts of Somatosensory System: -​ Mechanoreceptors: senses light touch, deep pressure, and temperature. -​ Free-Nerve Endings: senses touch, temperature and pain; we have more free-nerve endings. 35. Vestibular Sense: our sense of equilibrium. This system responds to gravity and informs us about our body’s location. 36. 3 Layers of Skin: -​ Epidermis: first layer of skin -​ Dermis: our thickest layer of skin -​ Hypodermis: the deepest layer of skin. 37. Withdrawal Reflex: moving a limb following contact with the skin. 38. Gate Control Theory: the theory that pain is blocked or gated from consciousness by neural mechanisms in the spinal cord. 39. A-Delta Pathway: fast pathway 40. C-Fibre Pathway: slower pathway 41. Proprioceptive System: information about where our body position is and allows us to move effectively. -​ These sense muscle stretch and force. -​ Information is not passed fast. 43. Vestibular System: where our body is spacially and how we are located. Fluid in our ears. [ex: reading in a fast car] 44. Parallel Processing: the ability to attend to multiple modalities simultaneously. 45. Bottom-Up Processing: constructs stimulus from its parts. (ex: sounding out a word) 46. Top-Down Processing: constructs stimulus from beliefs or expectations. 47. Perceptual Sets: how our expectations influence our perception; a mental predisposition to perceive one thing, not another. 48. Perceptual Constancy: how we perceive stimuli consistently across varied conditions. -​ Colour -​ Shape -​ Size 49. Gestalt Principles: principles regarding subjective contouring; rules governing how we perceive objects. (6) -​ Proximity -​ Similarity -​ Closure -​ Symmetry -​ Figure-Ground -​ Continuity 50. Depth Perception: the ability to see distance and 3-dimensional relations. 51. Monocular Depth Cues: relies on one eye. (6) -​ Relative Size -​ Texture Gradient -​ Interposition -​ Linear Perspective -​ Height in Plane -​ Light and Shadow 52. Binocular Depth Cues: relies on both eyes. (2) -​ Binocular Disparity: objects projected differently on right and left retina. -​ Binocular Convergence: eyes converging toward each other as they focus on closer objects. 53. Auditory Localization: locating the location of sound.  Chapter 5: [Consciousness] 1. Circadian Rhythm: the 24-hour cycle of changes in biological processes. 2. Biological Clocks: regulate our sense of time and control our circadian rhythms. 3. Stages of Sleep: -​ Stage 1: brief transitions, right before you fall asleep and just before you wake up. [theta waves] [4-7 cycles every second] Myoclonic Jerks: sudden jerks Hypnagogic Imagery: dream-like images that flirt in and out of consciousness. -​ Stage 2: where sleep spindles occur. [65% of our sleep] K-Complexes: sharp falling and rising of waves. Sleep Spindles: patterns of brain waves. heart rate decreases, body temperature decreases, muscles relax, and eye movement ceases. -​ Stage 3 & 4: slow-wave sleep and needed to feel rested. “Deep sleep” Delta waves are present [1-4 cycles every second] -​ REM Sleep: rapid eye movement (can last up to an hour) heart rate increases, blood pressure increases, and rapid breathing. we dream more in REM, but not only. 4. 3 Theories of Dreams: -​ Activation-Synthesis Theory: dreams are seen as an attempt to make sense of neural signals within the brain during REM sleep. The dreams reflect inputs from brain activation in the pons, which the forebrain attempts to weave together. -​ Neurocognitive Theory: dreams are seen as simulations of ourselves in different scenarios testing outcomes. -​ The Dream Continuity Hypothesis: thinking dreams mirror our real-life experiences. 5. Manifest Content: what happens in the dream. 6. Latent Content: what dreams mean. 7. Lucid Dream: becoming aware that you are dreaming. 8. 5 Sleep Disorders: -​ Insomnia: unable to sleep or remain asleep. -​ Narcolepsy: unable to stay awake; rapid and unexpectedly falling asleep. Difficult to keep a job. -​ Sleep Apnea: trouble sleeping due to breathing difficulties; many people sleep connected to a breathing machine, and it causes daytime fatigue. -​ Night Terrors: occurs mostly with children, waking up to screaming and crying. -​ Sleep Walking: walking while fully asleep. 8. Hallucinations: realistic perceptual experiences; thinking something is actually happening. 9. Out-of-Body Experiences: sense of consciousness leaving your body. 10. Near-Death Experiences: OBE experiences with people who nearly died or thought they were going to die. 11. Deja Vu: a feeling of reliving an experience that is new. 12. Hypnosis: imaginative suggestions are administered for changes in consciousness. -​ Hypnotist -​ Induction: setting the stage for hypnosis and followed by suggestions. 13. Theories on Hypnosis: -​ Sociocognitive Theory: rejected hypnosis as a trance state; they believed peoples responses to hypnosis was due to their beliefs and attitude towards it. -​ Dissociation Theory: explained hypnosis as dissociation; apart of us reacts to the suggestion and another part is unaffected and just observers what is going on. “Hidden Observer” 14. Myths of Hypnosis: -​ Is a trance state -​ Is unique -​ Is a sleeplike state -​ People are unaware of their surroundings -​ People forget what happened during hypnosis -​ It enhances memory 15. Risks of Substance Abuse Factors: sociocultural, personality, expectancies, and genetics. 16. Physical Dependence: using drugs to avoid withdrawal. 17. Psychological Dependence: using drugs because of intense craving. 18. Types of Drugs: (4) -​ Depressants: decrease activity in the CNS. examples: alcohol, barbiturates, quaaludes, and valium. sedatives are “calming” for acute anxiety and insomnia. -​ Stimulants: increase activity in the CNS. examples: tobacco, cocaine, nicotine, and caffeine. 3 main types: nicotine, cocaine, and amphetamines. -​ Narcotics: drugs to relieve pain and induce sleep. “sense of euphoria”. examples: heroin, morphine, and codeine. opioids: the entire class of drugs meant to reduce severe pain. opiates: a type of drug -​ Psychedelics: alters mood, perception, and thoughts. “hallucinogenic” examples: marijuana, THC, LSD, MDMA, and ecstasy.  Chapter 6: [Learning] 1. Learning: change in an organism’s behaviours or thoughts due to experience. 2. Habituation: getting used to things; responding less strongly to something you experience repeatedly. 3. Sensitization: increase in behaviour due to repeated stimulus. 4. Classical Conditioning: learning; a previous neutral stimulus elicits an automatic response. -​ UCS: unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) -​ UCR: unconditioned response (salivating) -​ CS: conditioned stimulus (metronome) -​ CR: conditioned response (salivating) 6. Pavlov’s Research: he studied the digestive system of dogs and discovered classical conditioning. Dogs began salivating when responding to meat powder. 7. Principles of Classical Conditioning: -​ Acquisition: learning; the conditioned stimulus grows through practice. -​ Extinction: removing what you learned and the predictive relationship is broken. -​ Spontaneous Recovery: recovering what is learned by replacing the conditioned stimuli over time. (ex: bringing the metronome back 2 months later) Renewal Effect: sudden reemergence of the conditioned response in a new environment to which they did not acquire it. -​ Stimulus Generalization: generalize what you have already learned to another stimulus. (more similar = stronger conditioned response) -​ Stimulus Discrimination: a less pronounced response to stimuli that is not specifically the original. -​ Higher Order Conditioning: the second step after classical conditioning; comparing new things in the environment with things we already know. (ex: celeb endorsement) 8. Everyday Applications of Classical Conditioning: -​ Advertising (celeb endorsement) -​ Creation of Fears/Phobias (ex: Little Albert) an infant fearing a white furry object; was critized for being unethical. -​ Drug Tolerance and Compensatory Responses -​ Fetishes -​ Disgust Reactions 9. Operant Conditioning: consequences of our behaviour control our learning; associating a behaviour with a consequence. Reinforcement = increasing a behaviour Punishment = decreasing a behaviour +​ Reinforcement= presenting a stimulus to increase behaviour. (star sticker) -​ Reinforcement= removing a stimulus to increase behaviour. (tylenol) +​ Punishment= presenting a stimulus to stop behaviour. (phone to crying kid) -​ Punishment= removing a stimulus to stop behaviour. (timeouts) 10. Operant Conditioning vs. Classical Conditioning -​ Operant is voluntary not elicited. -​ Behaviour is a function of consequences that follow behaviour not stimulus. -​ Behaviour depends on muscles and not automatic nervous systems. 11. Thorndike’s Law of Effect: the “Aha moment” strengthening the relationship between stimulus and response when it causes a satisfying response; trail and error. 12. Skinner Box: an operant chamber; animals in a box which allows us to fully control what they experience. it contributed to the study of reinforcement. 13. Discriminative Stimulus (sd): stimulus associated with the reinforcement. 14. Extinction: no longer providing the reinforcement. 15. Extinction Burst: a sudden spike in behaviour when the reinforcement is removed. 16. Schedules of Reinforcement: the pattern of delivering reinforcement. -​ Continuous: all the time. -​ Partial: only sometimes. Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after passing a certain number. (ex: giving a dog a treat after spinning 3 times.) Variable Ratio: unpredictable; reinforcement after a average of time. (ex: slot machines) Fixed Interval: reinforcement after specific time passes. (ex: dogs sits 6 times in a hour) Variable Interval: reinforcement after an average of time passes. 17. Applications of Operant Conditioning: -​ Animal Training Shaping: conditioning a target behaviour with reinforcement. Fading: removing a target behaviour with reinforcement. Chaining: linking two behaviours with a reward. -​ Overcoming Procrastination Premack Principle: a person will do a undesirable activity if it followed with a desirable one. (eating dinner to get to eat a dessert) -​ Therapeutic Uses: Token Economics: rewards and punishments shape behaviour. Secondary Reinforcers: neutral objects Primary Reinforcers: objects/outcomes that naturally increase behaviour 18. Two-Process Theory: the idea that classical conditioning motives operant conditioning. 19. Latent Learning: learning that is not observable. -​ Tolman’s Mazes: Training rats to go through a maze. One group had cheese as a reward in the end, and the other had no reward. With time, when they presented the cheese, the rats went through the maze faster and with fewer mistakes. 20. Observational Learning: social learning; learning from observed behaviour. -​ Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment: showing children a video of an adult punching a bobo doll, when children were given the doll they mimicked the behaviour. 21. Mirror Neurons: cells in the prefrontal cortex that are active when someone does an action and another observes. 22. Insight Learning: a sudden realization of a solution to a problem. -​ Kohler’s Findings: experiment with chimpanzees, putting a desired object where they could not reach it. 23. Biological Influences of Learning: -​ Conditioned Taste Aversions: avoiding a food based on being sick because of it once; associating taste and illness. -​ Instinctive Drift: returning to innate behaviour after repeated presentation of reinforcement. (example: [Breland’s Work] training a pig and racoon with a coin for advertisement, overtime the animals returned back to innate behaviour and began eating the coin) -​ Preparedness and Phobia: easily learning when you associate events with one another. (example: experiment with different groups of monkeys, one with a toy rabbit and flowers and the other with a toy snake and crocodile) 25. Learing Fads: (4) -​ Sleep-Assisted Learning -​ Accelerated Learning -​ Discovery Learning -​ Learning Styles  Chapter 7: [Memory] 1. Memory: retention overtime. 2. Memory Illusions: false but compelling memory. 3. Hyperthymestic Styndrome: good memory; remembering everything in perfect detail. 4. Types of Memory: (3) -​ Sensory -​ Short-term -​ Long-term 5. Sensory Memory: brief storage of information. 6. Sperling’s Work: showing a grid of letters and asking participants to recall them. 7. Iconic Memory: visual (lasts less than 2 seconds) 8. Echoic Memory: auditory 9. Eidetic Imagery = photographic memory 10. Short Term Memory: retaining information for a short period of time. (lasts 20 seconds) 11. Control Process: determines the storage, search, and retrieval of information. 12. Memory Loss in Short Term Memory: -​ Decay: loss of info. due to time. -​ Inference: conflict of new and old info. Retroactive Inference: new causing problems w/ old. Proactive Inference: old causing problems w/ new. 13. Miller’s Magic Number: the universal limit of short term memory. (7 +/- 2) Humans have the capacity to recall on average 7 pieces of info. in their short term memory. First was tested by having participants to memorize a sequence of letters and numbers. 14. Increasing Short-Term Memory: -​ Chuncking: placing info. into groups. -​ Rehearsal: repeating info. over and over. Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating original information Elaborative Rehearsal: linking things together to help remember. 15. Level of Processing: the more meaningfully you engage with information, the better we remember it. 16. Long-Term Memory: (2) larger capacity of memory and unlimited duration; any errors are due to meaning. -​ Explicit Memory -​ Implicit Memory. 17. Serial Position Effect: U-shaped relationship; where a word is on a list and the likelihood of it being recalled. -​ Primacy Effect: remembering early stimuli -​ Recency Effect: remembering later stimuli 18. Types of Long-Term Memory: (2)  -​ Explicit Memory: recall intentionally. (2) Semantic: general facts Episodic: recalling events in our life. -​ Implicit Memory: we do not need conscious effort to remember. (4) Priming: identifying stimulus faster due to experience. Procedural Memory: motor skills and habits. Conditioning Habituation 19. Three Processes of Memory: -​ Encoding: getting info. to memory bank. Mnemonics: learning aid to help recall information. Techniques such as: First Letter Bizarre & Interactive Imagery (words that remind you) Method of Loci (relies of imagery of places) Peg Word Method (rhyming) -​ Storage: how we store information Schemas: organized mental structures in memory. Script: experiences through time. -​ Retrival: moving info. from long term to conscious awareness. 20. Next-in-the-Line Effect: trouble recalling info. of events right before preceding their turn to perform. 21. Retrieval Cues: stimuli that help people retrieve memories. 22. Measures of Retrieval: (3) -​ Recalling Test (multiple choice) -​ Recognition Testing (short answer) -​ Relearning 23. Distributed vs. Massed Study: learning increases when you spend more time learning. (not cramming) 24. Tip-of-the-Tounge Phenomenon: trouble retrieving something we know. 25. Encoding Specificity: remembering something when the conditions of where we first learned it are the same. -​ Context-Dependent: the same environment of original memory. -​ State-Dependent: the same state of mind as original memory. 26. Engram: trace of memory in brain. 27. Assemblies: organization of neurons in the brain, memories are not all in one spot. 28. Long Term Potentiation: [LTP] gradual strength of neuron connections with repetitive stimulation. -​ Hippocampus in the brain. Converts short-term memory into long-term by organizing, storing, and retrieving information. -​ The hippocampus and amygdala interact to give us emotional memories. 29. Types of Amnesia: -​ Retrograde Amnesia: forgetting the past. -​ Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new memories. (more common) -​ Generalized Amnesia: forgetting identity or life history 30. Alzheimer’s Disease: most common cause of dementia. 31. Habituation: getting used to things; responding less strongly to something you experience repeatedly. 32. Children’s memory increases with age. 33. Meta-Memory Skills: knowledge on abilities and limitations. 34. Infantile Amnesia: inability to recall early age memories. 35. False Memories -​ Flashbulb Memory: vivid and detailed emotional memories. -​ Source Monitoring Errors: confusion on memories origin. (was it a dream or did it happen?) -​ Misinformation Effect: giving misleading information after an event can led to false memories. (ex: stop vs. yield experiment) 36. Cryptomnesia: when a forgotten memories returns; “hidden memory”. 37. Decreased Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: -​ from another culture -​ talks to other witnesses -​ a brief glimpse occurs -​ viewed crime in a stressful circumstance  Chapter 11: [Emotion and Motivation] 1. Emotion: the feelings associated with evaluating our experiences. 2. Discrete Emotion Theory: our primary emotions come from biology. -​ Primary emotions are cross-cultural and adaptive. -​ Emotions are associated with a motor program. 3. Elkam’s Faces -> refers to 7 faces that are cross-cultural; the same expression for emotions. 4. 7 Primary Emotions: happy, sad, disgust, fear, surprice, contempt, and anger. 5. Secondary Emotions: our reactions to other emotions. 6. Cognitive Theories on Emotions: proposes that emotions are products of thinking. 7. James-Lange Theory: emotions are a produced of interpreting stimuli. (ex: I was running away first, and then I got scared) 8. Somatic Marker Theory: our emotions are “gut reactions” that show us how to act. 9. Cannon-Bard Theory: an emotional provoking event simutaneously leads to a bodily reaction. (ex: fear and running away happen at the same time) 10. Two-Factor Theory: emotions are a product of alertness and arousal. 11. Unconscious Influences on Emotions: [variables that effect emotions] (3) -​ Automatic Behaviours -​ Mere Exposure Effect -​ Facial Feedback Hypothesis: theory that change in blood vessels to the face results to messages delivered to the brain; which results in our emotions. 12. Non-Verbal Leakage: the accident showing of our emotions by our non-verbal communication. (ex: body language, facial expression, or posture) -​ Emblems: cultural gestures -​ Illustrators: using hands while talking -​ Manipulators: touching someone (hug) 13. Types of Lie Detectors: (4) -​ Pinocchio Response: a perfect indicator for lying; measures our anxiety signals. But has a high rate of false positives. (when someone lies their temp rises around the nose like pinnochio) -​ Polygraph: testings the sweat humans produce; used to indicate lying. The test studies our sweat glands and not if we are actually lying or not. It is reliable but it is not valid. (false positives) -​ Guilty Knowledge Tests: asking them questions only the guilty person would know the answer. -​ Brain-Scanning: uses fMRI to study brain activity for lie detection. 14. Humans accuracy for lying is 55% 15. Integrity Tests: questionnaires or surveys to see someone’s likelihood of cheating or stealing. 16. Positive Psychology: understanding happiness; positive aspect of psychology that focuses on strengths, resilience, coping, and life satisfaction. This field focuses on helping people = study of wellbeing and the “good life”. 17. Broaden and Build Theory: happiness leads to seeing the “bigger picture” of life and think more openly. 18. Misconceptions to Happiness: -​ Happy is determinded by what happens to us -​ Money makes us happy -​ Declines by age -​ Westernized people are happier 19. Factors of Happiness: (9) -​ Religion - Exercise -​ Marriage - Gratitude -​ Friends and Family - Giving -​ University - Flow -​ Political Affiliation 20. Flow: being fully immersed in doing something. 21. Motivation: drive to want or do something. 22. Drive Reduction Theory: theory that drives motivate us to maintain a level of homeostasis. (motivations such as hunger, thirst, and sexual frustration) -​ The strength of our drive is affected by arousal. 23. Homeostasis: state of balance or equilibrium. 24. Yerkes-Donson Law: U-shaped relationship between arousal and performance. 25. Low Level of Arousal = tiredness, sadness, or boredem. 26. Incentive Theories: we are motivated by a goal. -​ Intrinsic Motivation: internal goal -​ Extrinsic Motivation: external goal like a reward or award. 29. Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs: he proposed that humans have to satisfy two sets of needs; our motivations (5 levels) -​ Primary Needs: food, water, and oxygen. -​ Secondary Needs: psychological needs like achievement or sense of belonging. 30. Brain Parts Involved with Eating: (5) -​ Lateral Hypothalamus: “feeding centre” -​ Ventromedial Hypothalamus: “satiety centre” -​ Ghrelin: communicates with hypothalamus to increase hunger. -​ Cholecystakinin [CCK]: opposite of ghrelin; decreases hunger. -​ Leptin: communicates to brain stem to decrease appetite and increase energy used. 31. Set Point Hypothesis: their is a genetic set for each person regarding their range of body fat and muscle mass we tend to maintain. 32. Bulimia Nervosa: binge eating followed by purgeing to not gain weight. 33. Anorexia Nervosa: desire to be skinny or thin. 34. Sexual Response Cycle: (4) -​ Excitement [promoting sexual desire; libido] -​ Plateau [sexual tension builds] -​ Climax [the peak of sexual pleasure; orgasm] -​ Resolution [body returns to normal levels] 35. Principles of Attraction: (3) -​ Proximity: how close you are to someone. -​ Similarity: how similar you guys are to one another. -​ Reciprocacy: what you put into a relationship is being reciprocated. 36. Social Role Theory: men and woman contain differences and similarities pertaining to sexual social behaviour. 37. Passionate Love: intense desire to be with someone. 38. Compassionate Love: evolves typically after passionate; deep fondness for someone. 39. Robert Sternberg “3 Sides of Love”: intimacy, passion, and commitment form and mold into 7 different types of love.