Psychology of Death | PSYC-208 Lecture Notes PDF

PSYC-208 | The Psychology of Death by David&King, Dying PhD 2. The Awareness and Fear of Death Death Concepts; Death Anxiety and Fear of Death; Coping with the Fear consciousness of self = consciou...

PSYC-208 | The Psychology of Death by David&King, Dying PhD 2. The Awareness and Fear of Death Death Concepts; Death Anxiety and Fear of Death; Coping with the Fear consciousness of self = consciousness of mortality Lecture 2 LO 1 2 Freud on Life and Death Sigmund Freud Life Instincts (Eros/Libido) vs. Death Instincts (Thanatos/Mortido) Lecture 2 LO 1 3 We are hardwired to survive… Like all species, we are biologically programmed to avoid tissue damage, harm, and death. How does this manifest psychologically? Cognitively, emotionally? What about socially? Amoeba eating 2 parameci Lecture 2 LO 1 4 …and hardwired to die. “The aim of all life is death...inanimate things existed before living ones.” (Sigmund Freud, 1920) Death Instincts / Thanatos unconscious drive towards aggression, self- destructiveness, and ultimately death Lecture 2 LO 1 5 The Paradox of Mortality Though hardwired to die, we are also hardwired to survive. This mirrors the (paradoxical) psychological relationship that we have to our own mortality… Though death is a universal condition of being human (of which we are consciously aware), our mortality is also one of our greatest sources of anxiety. Consider: “In this world, Why isexcept nothing is certain it thatdeath we find and death taxes.” so terrifying (Benjamin Franklin)when death is a natural part of life? Lecture 2 LO 1 6 An Unconscious Fear? “Psychoanalysis is correct in its insistence that human beings are much more frequently preoccupied with thoughts of their own death as well as about that of others than they know of consciously” (Schilder & Wechsler, 1934). Death anxiety can be either conscious or unconscious (Kesebir, 2014). Consider : How often do you think about your own Lecture 2 LO 1 7 death? Personal Activity Create a personal timeline of your life, from birth to death. Birth Death Note the major events that happened in your past, and the major events that you expect to happen in your future, up to and including the circumstances of your death. Reflect on the ideal image you hold of your entire life… What fears arise, if any? What are you most worried about? Lecture 2 LO 1 8  The Concept of Death Development of the psychologicall concept of death and mortality salience. Lecture 2 LO 2 9 The Concept of Death The psychological concept of death has been studied to include various sub-concepts: 1. Nonfunctionality 2. Irreversibility (Finality) 3. Universality 4. Applicability 5. Causality Lecture 2 LO 2 10 The Concept of Death Between the ages of 3 and 5, children develop a limited and inaccurate conception of death. An understanding of the nonfunctionality of death emerges, but death is not typically seen as final or universal. Early childhood is marked by magical thinking about death. (Didion, 2007; Hadad, 2009; Nagy, 1948) Lecture 2 LO 2 11 The Concept of Death Between the ages of 5 and 10, children begin to understand that death is final and, eventually, universal. An understanding of the irreversibility and universality of death emerge… as well as some understanding of causality. (Hadad, 2009; Longbottom & Slaughter, 2018; Nagy, 1948 Lecture 2 LO 2 12 The Concept of Death Between the ages of 10 and 16, adolescents develop a more complex and abstract understanding of death. Psychologist Maria Nagy (1948) suggested that it was not until this stage that the universality of death was completely understood. (Hadad, 2009; Nagy, 1948) Lecture 2 LO 2 13 Childhood Development Understanding of nonfunctionality is always acquired first, and understanding of causality last. Understanding of applicability and universality vary depending on personal/situational factors. Main sources of children's learning about death and dying include: (i) direct experiences of death, (ii) parental communication about death, and (iii) portrayals of death in the media and the arts. (Review by Longbottom & Slaughter, 2018) Lecture 2 LO 2 14 Death Concepts of Plants & Animals Nguyen & Gelman (2010) examined 4- and 6-year- olds' concepts of death as applied to plants and animals. 6-year-olds understand the components of death (universality, finality, causality) and that these components apply to plants and animals, but not objects. Death was more often seen as final and universal for animals than plants. Death of a flower was seen as more final than the death of a weed (trees Lecture 2 intermediate). LO 2 15 Death Concepts in Adulthood Thus far, we have been discussing biological concepts of death, which typically develop fully in childhood/adolescence. In adulthood, we see a more sophisticated understanding of the biological reality of death that often coexists with a belief in an afterlife for the mind or soul (Legere et al., 2012). Lecture 2 LO 2 16 Mortality Salience Children and young adults give little thought to the possibility of dying (Ens & Bond, 2007). Early work (Schilder & Wechsler, 1934) suggested that the average child “disbelieves very strongly that it will die. Even when it considers its own death, the child projects it into a future which is so remote that it has very little reality.” Mortality salience increases with age. Lecture 2 LO 2 17 Mortality Salience Consider: Who would you expect to have heightened mortality salience? What factors may lead to heightened mortality salience for certain groups of people? Lecture 2 LO 2 18  The Fear of Death Factors affecting death anxiety and mortality salience. Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 19 The Fear of Death Thanatophobia is the clinical fear of death. Necrophobia is a fear of dead or dying persons and/or things. Death anxiety has been found to play a significant role in a number of mental disorders, from PTSD and depression to obsessive-compulsive disorder (Iverach et al., 2014). Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 20 The Fear of Death Do people really fear public speaking more than death? In one study, public speaking was selected more often as a common fear from a list of fears (Bruskin Associates, 1973). In a survey of phobias, the fear of public speaking was more of a pressing concern (Burgess, 2013). Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 21 WHY? Online polls indicate that approximately 70% of North Americans fear death and things associated with death (e.g., Statistic Brain Research Institute, 2016). Consider: Is it ‘natural’ to fear death, or are we led to fear death by society, culture, or something else? Lecture 2 LO 3 22 Dissecting Death Anxiety Four common factors play a role in death anxiety: 1. Death is seen as a radical transformation and separation. 2. Death is understood as an annihilation of the self. 3. Death is a threat to the realization of life’s basic goals and propensities. 4. Death is a threat to the meaningfulness of life. (Barnett et al., 2018) Lecture 2 LO 3 23 Losing Control Neimeyer (1988, p. 126): “At least within Western societies, death anxiety is associated with the feeling of being at the mercy of external forces beyond one’s control.’’ \ Lecture 2 LO 3 24 Factors Affecting Death Anxiety Researchers have identified a number of influences on death anxiety and the fear of death: age, gender religiosity (to be examined in next unit) mental health reduced sense of control (Assari & Lankarani, 2016) pessimism (Barnett et al., 2018) lack of meaning in life; low self-esteem (Zhang et al., 2019) lack of purpose in life; regret (Pandya & Kathuria, 2021) Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 25 Mortality Salience Although older adults are more likely to think about death (Marshall, 1986), they are less likely to fear death than middle-aged or young adults (Aiken, 2001; Novak et al., 2014). Mixed findings in previous studies (e.g., Gesser et al., 1988; Wong et al., 1994) Greater mortality salience does not always lead to death anxiety. (e.g., Aiken, 2001; Goranson et al., 2017; Novak et al., 2014) Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 26 Death Anxiety in Older Adults Death anxiety tends to decrease with age, despite increasing mortality salience. What are some of the reasons for this? Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 27 Death Anxiety in Older Adults Death anxiety does tend to increase again in older adults (80+) living in nursing homes, as they approach death (e.g., Viney, 1984). Although younger adults are more likely to fear the state of death (compared to older adults), older adults are more likely to fear the dying process (Sinoff, 2017). Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 28 Gender Differences Women often report greater death anxiety than men. Why? By age 60, concern over mortality among women and men is essentially the same. (Russac et al., 2007) Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 29 Gender Differences 120 Women display a second spike in their 110 fifties... Fear of Death* 100 90 Why? 80 Women 70 Men 60 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+ Age Group *Total Score on Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale—Revised (Russac et al., 2007) (unstandardized) Lecture 2 LO 3, 4 30  How do people cope? How do people cope with the fear of death? How do they respond to reminders of their own mortality? Lecture 2 LO 5, 6, 7 31 How do people cope with the fear? According to Irvin Yalom (2009)… Some deny it, divert it (to other matters), or displace it. May do what society/religion/convention tell them to do. May seek endless wealth or power; material things. Others self-actualize; live their lives with meaning and purpose. Some overcome it entirely in creativity and connection. Others still “refuse the loan of life to avoid the debt of death.” What do you think this means? Lecture 2 LO 5 32 Terror Management Theory (Pyszczynski et al., 1999; Pyszczynski et al., 2004, 2006) Mortality salience impacts our behaviours & cognitions… Death anxiety/fear of mortality are our biggest motivators in life. The terror of absolute annihilation or non-existence produces great anxiety — we spend our lives trying to make sense of it.  An unconscious motivation for the search for meaning. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 33 Terror Management Theory (Pyszczynski et al., 1999) When presented with a threat to our mortality, we either… 1. deny the threat / try to prolong life (proximal defenses; occur when thoughts of death are conscious and in focus), or 2. adhere more strongly to our worldviews and defend our self-esteem (distal defenses; occur when thoughts of death are out of conscious awareness). Research supports this dual process model (Arndt et al., 1997). Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 34 Terror Management Theory (Pyszczynski et al., 1999) Findings from hundreds of studies have demonstrated support for TMT (Burke et al., 2010). These studies have mainly involved a “mortality salience” design, in which participants in one condition are reminded of their mortality, while participants in the control condition are reminded of an aversive topic unrelated to death. Reminders of death appear to drive a vast array of human behaviours… Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 35 Effects of Mortality Salience Death reminders have implications for self & society; lead to: self-enhancement (more positive self-bias) greater defense of one’s country, culture, values, way of life greater adherence to political views; more conservative views/values stereotypical thinking about people of other races feelings of nationalism and discrimination/prejudice aggression (especially towards outgroup members) pursuit of higher social status/class consumerism; etc. (Arndt et al., 2002; Cai et al., 2020; Schimel et al., 1999; Vail et al., 20 Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 36 The Global Rise of Far-Right Nationalism Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 37 The Global Rise of Far-Right Nationalism Research on Terror Management Theory When people are reminded of their mortality (e.g., as in the case of a disease threat), they more strongly defend those who share their views and act out aggressively against those who don’t. Death reminders also increase feelings of nationalism and lead people to endorse more conservative political values (including anti-immigrant sentimentalities). Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 38 Effects of Mortality Salience Arndt et al. (2010) found that people tended to reinforce their political views in response to losing a loved one (family member or close friend). This was true for both liberals and conservatives, but the effect was stronger for conservatives. (Armand, Arndt, & Pyszczynski, 2010) Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 39 Effects of Mortality Salience Nilsson & Sinclair (2021) found evidence of an effect of death anxiety on political ideology, but NOT an effect of mortality salience… Therefore, it is possible that reminders of death are insufficient on their own to motivate behaviour. Heightened fear or anxiety may be required.  This is consistent with the finding that this effect is greater among conservatives, as they tend to have heightened fear and disgust responses. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 40 Are there positive effects? Reminders of death can also motivate people to… enhance their physical health, prioritize positive goals. live up to positive standards and beliefs. build supportive relationships. foster open-minded and growth-oriented behaviours. …but these outcomes are less likely. (Arndt et al., 2002; Vail et al., 2012) Lecture 2 LO 5 41 Death Anxiety During COVID-19 The COVID-19 pandemic has caused a surge in mortality salience and death anxiety (Menzies & Menzies, 2020). Pyszczynski et al. (2021) suggest that TMT explains a host of pandemic-related behaviours. Discussion: What are the potential consequences of increased death anxiety during a pandemic? Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 42 Mindfulness & Mortality Salience Mindfulness: Non-judgmental observation of present moment. Higher trait mindfulness is associated with less defensive (more positive) responses to mortality salience (Niemiec et al., 2010). Consider: What are the possible explanations for this? Lecture 2 LO 5 43 Meditation & Buddhism Park & Pyszczynski (2019) examined defensive responses to thoughts of death in South Korean & American participants. STUDY METHODS: The Death Anxiety Scale was used to prime participants with mortality salience. This is often used to manipulate MS in TMT studies. Control groups which were not primed with mortality salience were also employed for comparison. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 44 Meditation & Buddhism Park & Pyszczynski (2019) examined defensive responses to thoughts of death in South Korean & American participants. STUDY METHODS: Worldview defense was measured according to participants’ relative evaluations of essays that either praised or criticized their nation. The difference between evaluations of the pro- and anti-U.S. essays was then calculated. Higher scores indicated higher worldview defense. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 45 Meditation & Buddhism Park & Pyszczynski (2019) examined defensive responses to thoughts of death in South Korean & American participants. STUDY METHODS: Worldview defense was then compared… 1. Between non-Buddhists who haven’t meditated and individuals with some meditation experience (including Buddhists). 2. Between people who participated in a 20-minute meditation exercise and those who did not. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 46 Meditation & Buddhism Park & Pyszczynski (2019) examined defensive responses to thoughts of death in South Korean & American participants. STUDY FINDINGS: Non-Buddhists who did not meditate displayed typical defensive response to mortality salience. Defensive response was NOT observed in either non- Buddhists who meditated regularly or Buddhist monks; also not observed following initial meditation experience. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 47 Park & Pyszczynski (2019): Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 48 Meditation & Buddhism “The present findings show that the elimination of worldview defense that meditation produced…was mediated by the elimination of death thought suppression and rebound that it produced. This reduced thought suppression is precisely what one would expect to find among people who are more able to observe their thoughts without judgment…” (Park & Pyszczynski, 2019) Generally, people first deny the threat. This is indicated by reduced death thought accessibility (DTA). But DTA later rebounds, especially following a distraction, which then leads to defense of worldview and self-esteem. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 49 Is humility also a buffer? In a series of studies by Kesebir (2014)… Higher humility was associated with reduced defensive responses to increased mortality salience, including lower moral disengagement and reduced need for self-enhancement. “The dark side of death anxiety is brought about by a noisy ego.” Humility is characterized by a willingness to accept the self and life without comforting illusions, and by low levels of self-focus. Lecture 2 LO 5, 6 50 Meaning Management Theory (Neimeyer, 2001; Tomer et al., 2008; Wong, 2008) The search for meaning is a primary motive (not the fear of death); we are driven to make meaning in life. It is through meaning that we overcome death anxiety. Consider: Which theory is more reasonable – terror management or meaning management? Lecture 2 LO 7 51 Meaning Maintenance Model (Heine, Proulx, & Vohs, 2006) This model is consistent with the meaning management model… People have a need for meaning / are driven to make meaning. And adds that… When people's sense of meaning is threatened, they reaffirm alternative representations as a way to regain meaning. This explains why people respond to threats to their mortality by investing in their self-esteem and other Lecture 2 of meaning. LO 7 52 sources Coping with the Fear of Death According to Wong & Tomer (2011), in order to best manage our thoughts and fears regarding death, we should: avoid death anxiety by reducing threats, and approach life-enhancing and meaning-making goals. Lecture 2 LO 5 53 Don’t worry too much… Goranson et al. (2017) compared feelings of people facing imminent death with those of people imagining imminent death… Study 1: Breast Cancer Patients Blog posts of near-death cancer patients were more positive and less negative than simulated blog posts of non-patients. Study 2: Death-Row Inmates Last words of death-row inmates were more positive and less negative than the simulated last words of non-inmates. Lecture 2 LO 4 54 What is the opposite? Discussion: What is the opposite of death anxiety? Death Anxiety ? Is it the absence of death anxiety, or the acceptance of death? Lecture 2 55 Learning Objectives 1. Consider why people are aware of death and why they fear it. 2. Name and define the components of the psychological concept of death; describe the age-related development of these components. 3. Identify factors in death anxiety, the fear of death, and mortality salience. 4. Discuss research findings on death anxiety. 5. Describe the ways in which people cope with the fear of death. 6. Explain terror management theory (TMT), noting the possible effects of mortality salience and death anxiety (and related research). 7. Explain the meaning management theory and the meaning maintenance model. Lecture 2 56