PSY 108 Final Exam Study Guide PDF

1 PSY 108 Final Study Guide LECTURE INFORMATION Lecture - General Knowledge ❖ Explain the difference between episodic and semantic memory (provide examples of each) Episodic memory: A person's me...

1 PSY 108 Final Study Guide LECTURE INFORMATION Lecture - General Knowledge ❖ Explain the difference between episodic and semantic memory (provide examples of each) Episodic memory: A person's memory for specific events that were personally experienced (e.g. recalling what happened during the last football game that you attended) Semantic memory: A mental thesaurus organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols. (e.g. knowing that football is a sport) What does semantic memory allow us to do? Organize objects according to concepts ◆ Seeing and identifying a microphone Make inferences going beyond the information given ◆ Assume that the microphone is used by professors who give lectures Decide which objects are similar ❖ Theories about how people represent general knowledge – what are the key characteristics/properties of these theories, what is the supporting evidence and what are challenges to or limitations of these theories: Defining-attribute theory (network models of concepts) Key Characteristics/Properties: Concepts are represented by a list of defining attributes. Concepts are organized into networks, where related concepts are connected. Concepts are represented as nodes, and the relationships between them are represented as links. Supporting Evidence: Hierarchical organization observed in semantic memory.  2 Reaction time studies showing that people respond faster to items that are closely related in the network. Challenges/Limitations: Typicality Effects: Typical instances of a category are responded to more quickly than atypical instances, which doesn't fit neatly into a network model based solely on defining attributes. What are typicality effects? How do they cause a problem for this theory? Typicality effects refer to the phenomenon where typical instances of a category are processed more quickly and accurately than atypical instances. This poses a problem for Defining-Attribute Theory because it suggests that concepts may not be strictly defined by a list of attributes; rather, there may be graded membership within categories. Feature analytic approach Defining features: Necessary features of a category Ex) Birds lays eggs Characteristic features: Typical but not necessary characters of category Ex) Birds fly How does this approach deal with typicality effects? The feature analytic approach acknowledges that not all features are equal in their importance for category membership, which allows for graded membership within categories and accounts for typicality effects. Prototype theory What are prototypes? Idealized representations of a category that embody its most typical features. What are the 3 levels of prototypes? What are the characteristics of each level and be able to provide examples of each level. Superordinate: Very broad categories (e.g. animal, plant, tool)  3 Basic level: Levels at which categories are represented that contains the most useful information (e.g. Cat, tree, saw) Subordinate: Highly specific example (e.g. Siamese cat, elm, hacksaw) What is the support for the 3-level approach to prototypes? Experimental evidence shows that basic level categories are psychologically privileged and that people tend to categorize items at this level more frequently. What are the issues with the prototype theory? Difficulty accounting for variability within categories and the role of context in category membership. Exemplar theory What are exemplars? Specific instances or examples of a category that are stored in memory. How does it differ from prototype theory? Exemplar theory suggests that instead of forming an abstract prototype, people store individual instances of categories and make category judgments by comparing new instances to these stored examples. What are the issues with exemplar theory? Implausible that people remember every example of every category Can become computationally expensive as the number of exemplars grows Doesn't explain how people form categories in the absence of direct experience with exemplars. When is the prototype theory more suitable? When is exemplar theory more suitable? Prototype Theory: More suitable when dealing with abstract or less familiar categories. Exemplar Theory: More suitable when dealing with categories that have clear, concrete instances and when there is variability within categories.  4 ❖ What are schemas in relation to general knowledge? Schemas are cognitive structures that organize knowledge and expectations about specific domains. They guide our attention, interpretation, and memory of events or experiences. Bartlett’s War of Ghosts study and what it tells us about schemas Bartlett's study demonstrated how schemas influence memory and cognition. Participants were asked to recall a Native American folk tale over time. Their recall was influenced by their cultural schemas, with details being altered or omitted to fit their preexisting expectations. Impact of schemas on memory selection Schemas influence what information is encoded, stored, and retrieved from memory. They guide attention towards schema-consistent information and away from schema-inconsistent information, leading to memory distortions and biases. Lecture - Language ❖ Linguistic relativity: Linguistic relativity is the idea that language shapes and influences thought processes and perceptions. Whorfian hypothesis and its 3 versions Strong Hypothesis: Language determines thinking Weak Hypothesis: Language influences perception Weakest Hypothesis: Language influences memory Evidence for and against linguistic relativity For: Brown & Lenneberg's study on color memory. Against: Heider's study with the Dani people and their color memory. Color vocabulary Brown & Lenneberg Heider Counting  5 ❖ Psycholinguistics: Psycholinguistics is the study of the psychological aspects of language, including how it is processed, produced, and understood. Phonology: Study of speech sounds and their function in language. Morphology: Study of the internal structure of words. Semantics: Study of meaning in language. Syntax: Grammatical rules governing word order and sentence structure. Pragmatics: Understanding of social rules underlying language use. Chomsky’s approach to psycholinguistics Deep structure vs surface structure What are transformational rules? ◆ Rules for converting between deep and surface structures in language. What are some challenges to his approach? Not all aspects of his theory are supported, such as processing time for sentences requiring transformations. ❖ Factors affecting comprehension (know examples of each) Negatives: Require more processing time and can lead to errors. Passive Voice: More difficult to understand compared to active voice. Ambiguity: Slows down comprehension as multiple interpretations are considered. Complex Syntax: Nested structures tax working memory, making understanding more challenging. ❖ Neurolinguistics Be able to apply the following two examples to our understanding of language processing Aphasia: Difficulty in communication due to brain damage affecting language areas. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Fluent speech with meaningless content. Broca’s Aphasia: Meaningful speech with grammatical deficits. Hemispheric specialization  6 Left and right hemispheres ◆ Left Hemisphere: Superior in language abilities. ◆ Right Hemisphere: Superior in processing metaphor, humor, emotional tone. Asymmetrical dendritic branching: Different branching patterns in language-related brain regions. ❖ Eye fixations in relation to reading and comprehension What does the research tell us? Eye fixations correspond to the amount of time spent processing each word during reading. Fixations are influenced by factors such as word frequency, sentence complexity, and reader's attention. Factors that affect eye fixations while reading: Word frequency, ambiguity, sentence structure, and reader's cognitive load can all impact eye fixations while reading. How does mind-wandering impact gaze duration? When the mind wanders during reading, gaze duration tends to decrease, indicating shallower processing of the text and reduced sensitivity to word characteristics. ❖ Dual route approach to reading Direct-Access Route: Recognizing words visually without phonetic decoding. Indirect-Access Route: Recognizing words by sounding them out phonetically. Routes used depend on word characteristics and reader expertise. What characteristics influence likelihood of utilizing these routes Characteristics of the word (e.g., frequency, familiarity) Reader expertise (e.g., reading skill level) Implications of the dual route approach for teaching reading to children Phonics approach (indirect access) Basic characteristics of this approach: Emphasizes teaching children to decode words by sounding them out phonetically.  7 Evidence supporting this approach: Research shows that phonics instruction helps children with reading difficulties improve their reading skills. Whole-word approach (direct access) Basic Characteristics: Emphasizes teaching children to recognize whole words by sight rather than decoding them phonetically. Evidence Countering: Studies suggest that relying solely on whole-word instruction may not be effective for all children, particularly those with reading difficulties. What is the current compromise of these approaches? Most educators and researchers now advocate for a balanced approach that incorporates both phonics instruction and whole-word recognition strategies. This compromise aims to provide comprehensive reading instruction that addresses the needs of diverse learners and promotes reading fluency and comprehension. ❖ Definition of reading comprehension: Understanding and extracting meaning from written text. Factors that encourage drawing inferences Working-Memory Capacity: Individuals with larger working-memory capacities tend to be better at drawing inferences while reading. Working memory allows readers to hold and manipulate information in their minds, which is essential for making connections between text and background knowledge. Expertise: Readers with expertise in a particular subject matter or domain are more likely to draw accurate and meaningful inferences from the text. Expertise provides readers with a rich knowledge base that they can leverage to make connections, fill in gaps, and interpret implicit information in the text. Meta-comprehension skills: Self-awareness and monitoring of one's comprehension process.  8 Ways to enhance meta-comprehension skills: Strategies include self-explanation, summarization, making predictions, and questioning the text. Lecture - Problem Solving and Decision Making ❖ Definition of decision making: The process of assessing information and choosing among two or more alternatives. ❖ Understand the two models for decision making and which is more relevant for cognitive psychologists Prescriptive Models: Describe the best way to make a decision, often involving weighing all outcomes and considering pros and cons. Descriptive Models: Describe how decisions are actually made, focusing on real-world decision-making processes. ❖ Be able to define key characteristics and differentiate between theories about decision making Classical Decision Theory: Assumed decision makers knew all options, understood pros and cons, and rationally made choices to maximize value. Satisficing: Aims to obtain an outcome that is good enough, rather than searching endlessly for the optimal solution. Individual differences in decision-making style and psychological well-being Satisficers vs maximizers: Maximizers tend to examine as many options as possible, leading to choice overload, while satisficers settle for satisfactory outcomes. Kahneman and Tversky: Proposed heuristics guiding human decision making, such as representativeness heuristic, availability heuristic, anchoring and adjustment heuristic, framing effect, overconfidence, planning fallacy, and hindsight bias. Decision making heuristics (define, know the main characteristics and provide an example of each of the following heuristics) Representativeness heuristic: Judging the likelihood of an event based on similarity to a population.  9 ◆ Role of sample size Larger sample sizes are statistically more likely to reflect the true proportions in a population. However, people often fall prey to the small-sample fallacy, assuming that a small sample will accurately represent the entire population. Availability heuristic: Making judgments based on how easily instances come to mind, influenced by media and vividness. ◆ Role of media and vividness Media tends to report extraordinary or sensational events, making them more memorable and accessible in people's minds. Consequently, individuals may overestimate the likelihood of such events occurring because of their heightened salience. Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: Starting with an initial guess and adjusting based on additional information. ◆ Role of presentation order The order in which information is presented can influence the anchoring effect. People tend to anchor on the first piece of information they receive and adjust insufficiently from there. For example, when presented with an initial price for a product, individuals may use that as a reference point for subsequent evaluations. Framing effect: How the wording of a question influences decision making. Overconfidence: Unrealistic optimism about abilities, judgments, and skills. ◆ Study on the planning fallacy The planning fallacy refers to the tendency for individuals to underestimate the time, costs,  10 and risks involved in completing a future task or project. This bias was demonstrated in a study where students consistently underestimated the time it would take to complete assignments, even when asked to provide best and worst-case scenarios. Hindsight bias: Hindsight bias occurs when individuals believe that they would have predicted an outcome after it has already occurred. This bias can lead people to overestimate their ability to predict events and outcomes retrospectively. ❖ Definition of Problem Solving: The process of reaching a goal when the solution is not immediately obvious. Two types of problem solving Well-defined (clear steps) vs Ill-defined (vague steps) Well-defined Problems: These problems have clear steps to reach a solution. The parameters and constraints are explicit. Ill-defined Problems: These problems have vague steps and may lack clear parameters or constraints. Solutions are subjective and open to interpretation. Three components of problem solving Initial State: This is the starting point of the problem-solving process, where the problem is identified and the current situation is understood. Goal State: The desired outcome or solution that the problem solver aims to achieve. Obstacles: Challenges, constraints, or barriers that hinder progress from the initial state to the goal state. How do we represent problems? Methods of representing the problem Matrices: Grids showing all possible combinations of items. Useful for complex, stable, categorical information.  11 Diagrams: Represent abstract information in a concrete fashion, reducing complex information into a tangible form. Analogy Use: Employing better-understood problems to solve new problems by recognizing similarities at a deep level. Means-End Analysis/Heuristics: Strategies not guaranteed to be correct but generally helpful. It involves identifying the desired goals and figuring out the means to reach them, often by dividing the problem into sub-problems. ◆ Hill Climbing Technique (Problem of Local Maxima): Choosing steps that move closest to the goal. However, this technique can lead to getting stuck in local maxima, where states are closer to the goal but not the global maximum. To overcome this, backtracking or adding randomness may be necessary. Factors that influence problem solving Expertise: Specific memory skills, speed, accuracy, and metacognitive skills. Mental Set: Tendency to use the same solution from previous problems, which can hinder flexibility. Functional Fixedness: Assigning stable uses to an object, limiting creative problem-solving. Insight vs non-insight problems Provide examples of each What are the key differences between these types of problems? Insight Problems: Solutions seem to come suddenly, often after a period of apparent impasse. They involve a sudden restructuring of the problem representation leading to a solution. Non-insight Problems: Solutions are reached through gradual, systematic problem-solving strategies. They  12 involve logical reasoning and the application of known problem-solving techniques. What do these differences tell us about metacognition? ◆ Insight problems often elicit a different cognitive and emotional response compared to non-insight problems. Metacognition, the awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, may differ between these problem types. ◆ Metacognitive strategies may vary depending on whether individuals anticipate a sudden insight or expect to work through a problem methodically. Relationship between right/left hemisphere differences and insight problems Studies suggest that insight problem solving involves increased activity in the right hemisphere of the brain, particularly in the right temporal lobe. Right hemisphere activation may be associated with holistic processing, pattern recognition, and sudden shifts in problem-solving strategies, which are characteristic of insight solutions. Effects of physical distance and temporal distance on insight Research indicates that greater physical or temporal distance from a problem can enhance insight problem solving. Physical distance can lead to a more abstract representation of the problem, facilitating novel insights. Temporal distance encourages a broader perspective and may help individuals overcome mental fixation on previous problem-solving attempts, allowing for fresh insights. TEXTBOOK INFORMATION Chapter 8 - General Knowledge  13 ❖ Prototype theory to semantic memory/information: We organize each category on the basis of a prototype Characteristics of prototypes – how do they differ from non-prototypes? A prototype is the item that is the best, most typical example of a category; a prototype therefore is the ideal representative of this category Typicality effect: In the prototype theory of semantic memory, the observation that people judge typical items (prototypes) faster than items that are not typical (nonprototypes). ◆ Ex) When judging whether items belong to the category “bird,” people judge robin more quickly than penguin Semantic priming effect: The observation that people respond faster to an item if it was preceded by an item with similar meaning. ◆ Ex) Someone might respond faster to the word "dog" after being primed with the word "cat" than with an unrelated word like "car". Family resemblance: In the prototype approach to semantic memory, the observation that for some concepts no single attribute is shared by all examples of the concept. Each example has at least one attribute in common with some other example of the concept. ◆ Ex) For the concept of "furniture," while no single attribute is shared by all examples, a chair, a table, and a sofa each share at least one attribute with another piece of furniture, such as being used for sitting, having legs, or being found in a living room, illustrating the family resemblance among them. Levels of categorization Superordinate-level categories: In the prototype approach to semantic memory, higher‐level or more general categories;  14 “Furniture,” “animal,” and “tool” are all examples of superordinate‐level categories. Basic-level categories: In the prototype approach to semantic memory, categories that are moderately specific; “chair,” “dog,” and “screwdriver” are examples of basic‐level categories. How does a prototype differ from a basic level category? ◆ A prototype is the best example of a category. In contrast, a basic‐level category refers to a category that is neither too general nor too specific. What are unique characteristics of basic-level categories? ◆ Basic-level names are used to identify objects You would look around yourself and say you see a “pen”, not “Paper Mate gel pen” ◆ Basic-level names are more likely to produce the semantic priming effect Making a faster judgment when you hear the word “apple” and see two pictures of apples than if you just heard “fruit” ◆ Different levels of categorizations activate different regions of the brain A superordinate term (e.g., toy) is more likely than a basic‐level term (e.g., doll) to activate part of the prefrontal cortex Subordinate-level categories: In the prototype approach to semantic memory, lower‐level or more specific categories; “Desk chair,” “collie,” and “Phillips screwdriver” are examples of subordinate‐level categories. ❖ Exemplar theory to semantic memory/information: Argues that we first learn information about some specific examples of a concept; we then classify each new stimulus by deciding how closely it resembles all of those specific examples Exemplar: In concept representation, the examples of a concept stored in memory. A new stimulus is classified by comparing it with these exemplars.  15 How does this approach differ from the prototype approach? Prototype theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to a single prototype in a category, while exemplar theory suggests that a new stimulus is compared to multiple known exemplars in a category. Prototype Theory Example: For the category "bird," a prototype might be an average bird with common features like wings, feathers, and the ability to fly, such as a robin. A new bird, like a sparrow, is categorized as a bird because it closely matches this prototype. Exemplar Theory Example: For the category "bird," you remember specific examples like robins, sparrows, eagles, and penguins. A new bird is categorized as a bird by comparing it to these specific remembered birds. If it resembles any of these exemplars, it is categorized as a bird. ❖ Network models of semantic memory/information: Proposals that semantic memory consists of a netlike organization of concepts in memory, with numerous interconnections. Broadly, how do network models differ in approach to categorization models (i.e. prototype and exemplar) The prototype and exemplar approaches both emphasize whether an item belongs to a category. In contrast, network theories are more concerned about the interconnections among related items. What are nodes and spreading activation in relation to network models? Node: In network models, the representation of each concept, or one unit located within the network. When people see or hear the name of a concept, the node representing that concept is activated. Ex) The concept "apple" might be interconnected with nodes like "fruit," "red," "sweet," and "tree," illustrating a web of related ideas and attributes.  16 Spreading activation: In network models of semantic memory, the process by which nodes excite nearby or related nodes. ❖ What are schemas and scripts? Schemas: Generalized, well‐integrated knowledge about a situation, an event, or a person. Schemas allow people to predict what will happen in a new situation. These predictions are generally correct. Scripts: A simple, well‐structured sequence of events in a specified order. Scripts are usually associated with a highly familiar activity. How are schemas related to general knowledge? Schemas often influence the way we understand a situation or an event, and we can think of them as the basic building blocks for representing our thoughts about people Understand the relationship between schemas and memory Memory selection: Research done on people remembering the items in a room; people were highly likely to recall objects consistent with the schema for what they expect to be in the room Ex) People were more likely to remember seeing a desk and desk chair in the office, but not the bottle of wine Boundary extension: The tendency to remember having viewed a greater portion of a scene than was actually shown. Ex) When someone views a photo of a park bench with a tree partially visible on the side, and later they remember the scene as including more of the tree and the surrounding park than what was actually shown in the original photograph.  17 Memory abstraction: a memory process that stores the meaning of a message, rather than the exact words How do the constructive and pragmatic approaches to memory differ? How can they be integrated? Constructivist model of memory: In long‐term memory, the proposal that people integrate information from individual sentences in order to construct larger ideas. Pragmatic view of memory: The proposal that people pay attention to the aspect of a message that is most relevant to their current goals. Ex) Knowing when only the gist of a sentence is important and when to pay attention to the specific wording. What is memory integration? How is it related to schematic processing? Memory integration: Using background knowledge to incorporate new information into memory in a schema‐consistent manner. Ex) When learning about the flightless kiwi bird, a person uses their existing knowledge of birds to remember that while most birds can fly, some, like the kiwi, have adapted to life on the ground, thus integrating the new information into their bird schema. Understand research on memory integration (e.g. Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts” study; research on gender stereotypes) Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts” study: Demonstrated that people often reconstruct memories based on their own cultural expectations and prior knowledge, leading to distortions and omissions in recalling details of an unfamiliar story Research on gender stereotypes: Shows that individuals tend to remember information in a way that is consistent with societal gender norms, often integrating new information about people and behaviors into pre-existing gender schemas, which can reinforce and perpetuate stereotypical beliefs.  18 Chapter 9 - Language Part 1: Introduction to Language and Language Comprehension ❖ Definition of psycholinguistics: An interdisciplinary field that examines how people use language to communicate ideas. ❖ Be able to define key terms used by psycholinguistics Phoneme: The basic unit of spoken language, such as the sounds a, k, and th. The English language has about 40 phonemes. Morpheme: The basic unit of meaning in language. For example, the word reactivated actually contains four morphemes: re‐, active, ‐ate, and ‐ed. Each of those segments conveys meaning. Morphology: The study of morphemes; morphology examines how words are created by combining morphemes. Syntax: The grammatical rules that govern how words can be combined into sentences. Semantics: The area of psycholinguistics that examines the meanings of words and sentences. Pragmatics: In language, the social rules and world knowledge that allow speakers to successfully communicate messages to other people. ❖ Be able to differentiate between early theories of psycholinguistics Chomsky’s approach: Humans have an inborn, universal grammar that allows them to produce and understand sentences they have never encountered before, emphasizing the distinction between deep structure (abstract meaning) and surface structure (actual spoken or written words). Surface structures vs deep structures Surface structures: In psycholinguistics, the representation of a sentence based on the words that are actually spoken or written, in contrast to deep structure. Deep structures: In psycholinguistics, the underlying, more abstract meaning of a sentence, in contrast to surface structure. Research in opposition to Chomsky Research has shown that many non-European languages do not exhibit the universal grammatical patterns predicted by  19 Chomsky, challenging the notion that all languages share the same underlying structure Cognitive-functional approach: The idea that the function of human language in everyday life is to communicate meaning to other individuals. ❖ What methodologies have been used by psycholinguistics? (And what do they tell us about how people comprehend language?) Negation and passive voice: Study comprehension of sentences with negation or passive voice, revealing insights into how people understand complex linguistic structures. Incremental interpretation: Examines real-time language understanding, showing how meaning is built incrementally as words are encountered, providing insights into comprehension strategies. Self-paced reading task: Participants read sentences one word at a time at their own pace, revealing the timing of language processing and strategies for handling syntactic and semantic ambiguities. Lexical ambiguity: A type of ambiguity that arises because a word has multiple meanings. Syntactic ambiguity: Investigates sentences with multiple interpretations due to ambiguous syntax, revealing how people resolve ambiguity during comprehension based on context and syntactic cues. Eye-tracker: Tracks participants' eye movements during reading or listening, providing detailed information about attention allocation, ambiguity resolution, and information integration in comprehension. Good-enough approach: In language comprehension, the observation that people frequently process only part of a sentence. ❖ Definition of neurolinguistics: The discipline that examines how the brain processes language. What do language disorders tell us about neurolinguistics? Broca's aphasia: An expressive‐language deficit—trouble producing speech—characterized by hesitant speech using isolated words and short phrases. This deficit is caused by damage to Broca's area. Wernicke's aphasia: Severe problems with language comprehension (e.g., understanding instructions), caused by  20 damage to Wernicke's area. Many people with Wernicke's aphasia also have problems with language production. What is hemispheric specialization/lateralization? Lateralization means that each hemisphere of the brain has somewhat different functions. What is the mirror system/what are mirror neurons? The mirror system is a network involving the brain's motor cortex. Many argue that neurons in motor‐related areas of the brain display special properties What does this system tell us about language? The mirror system suggests that language comprehension might involve the simulation of observed actions in the brain's motor cortex, implying a link between understanding language and motor processes. ❖ Know key differences and similarities between written and spoken language Written language comprehension differs from spoken language in its visual nature, control over input rate, ability to rescan, standardized input, clear word boundaries, lack of nonverbal cues, and requiring more elaborate teaching for children's mastery. Despite these differences, both involve understanding words and sentences, with a strong correlation between reading and oral comprehension in adults. Adults typically learn new words more quickly in written form than in spoken form. ❖ Dual-route approach to reading: The proposal that skilled readers use both (1) a direct‐access route and (2) an indirect‐access route to recognize words during reading. Direct-access route: During reading, when a word is recognized directly through vision, without “sounding out” the word. Ex) You look at the word choir and the visual pattern is sufficient to access the word and its meaning. You are especially likely to use direct access if the word has an irregular spelling and cannot be “sounded out”—for example, the words one or through.  21 Indirect-access route: During reading, when—as soon as a word is seen—the letters on the page are translated into some form of sound, before the word and its meaning can be accessed. ❖ Approaches for how to teach reading (English) to children and how these approaches relate to the direct-access and indirect-access approaches Whole-word approach: The proposal that readers can directly connect the written word—as an entire unit—with the meaning that this word represents. Phonics approach: The proposal that readers recognize words by trying to pronounce (“sounding out”) the individual letters in the word. Whole-language approach: The idea that, in order to increase children's enthusiasm about learning to read, reading instruction should emphasize meaning, and it should also be enjoyable. Chapter 11 - Problem Solving and Creativity ❖ Defining problem solving and its 3 components Problem Solving: The processes used to reach a specified goal for which the solution is not immediately obvious. Either important information is missing and/or it is unclear how to reach the goal. Initial state: In problem solving, the situation at the beginning of a problem. “I need to reach Jim tonight so that we can begin to work on our social psychology project … but I don't know his last name, his e‐mail address, or his phone number.” Goal state: In problem solving, the situation when the problem is solved. “I have Jim's last name and his e‐mail address.” Obstacles: In problem solving, the restrictions that make it difficult to proceed from the initial state to the goal state. “Jim wasn't in class yesterday,” “The professor said she was going to be away this afternoon,” and “We need to turn in a draft of our project on Friday.”  22 ❖ Relationship between attention and problem solving Scanning strategically, deciding which information is most important helps effectively problem solve Paying attention to specific details or parts of the problem helps you solve it faster ❖ Methods of problem representation (provide an example of each) Problem Representation: In problem solving, the process of translating the elements of a problem into a different format. Choosing an appropriate representation makes an effective solution to the problem more likely. Symbols: Represent abstract problems using symbols, as in algebraic equations. Ex) Using "m" to represent Mary's age and "s" to represent Susan's age in problem-solving equations. Matrices: Grids of rows and columns showing possible combinations of items. Ex) Using a matrix to organize information about people's diseases and room numbers in a hospital. Diagrams: Visual representations that help understand abstract information or problem structures. Ex) Using hierarchical tree diagrams to show relationships between categorized items. Visual images: Mental representations of visual information or simulations used in problem-solving. Ex) Visualizing two monks walking up and down a mountain to solve a problem about their meeting point. ❖ Situated and embodied cognition in relation to problem solving Provide examples and supporting research Situated cognition approach: The proposal that a person makes use of information in the immediate environment or situation; thus knowledge typically depends on the context surrounding the person. Ex) Instead of relying solely on abstract mental maps, people use cues from their immediate environment, such as  23 landmarks, street signs, and familiar buildings, to guide their way efficiently. Embodied cognition approach: The proposal that people often use their own bodies and motor actions in order to express their abstract thoughts and knowledge. Ex) You are trying to remember a word that is on the tip of your tongue, such as metronome. You are more likely to succeed if you are allowed to use gestures, such as waving your hand back and forth, using the same motion as a metronome ❖ Problem solving strategies Algorithm vs heuristic: An algorithm is a method that will always produce a solution to the problem, although the process can sometimes be inefficient, while a heuristic is a general rule or problem‐solving strategy that usually produces a correct solution; however, it can sometimes lead to cognitive errors. Exhaustive search: An example of an algorithm in which a person tests all the possible answers, using a specified system Ex) When trying to find a specific book in a library, systematically checking each shelf in alphabetical order until the desired book is found. Analogy approach: The use of a solution to a similar, earlier problem to help solve a new problem. Ex) When learning to play a new musical instrument, relying on previous experience with a similar instrument to understand fingering techniques and musical concepts. Means-ends heuristic: An approach to problem solving that consists of two important components: (1) dividing the problem into a number of subproblems (2) reducing the difference between the initial state and the goal state for each of the subproblems. ◆ Ex) When planning a road trip, breaking down the journey into smaller segments (subproblems) like finding the best routes, rest stops, and  24 accommodations, then working to minimize the distance and time between the current location and the final destination. Hill-climbing heuristic: Consistently choosing—at each choice point—the alternative that seems to lead most directly toward the goal. Ex) When solving a maze, consistently choosing the path that seems to lead closer to the exit at each junction, without considering long-term consequences or alternative routes. Factors that influence problem solving Expertise: A person's impressive memory abilities or this person's consistently exceptional performance on representative tasks in a particular area. Knowledge base: The specialized and extensive domain-specific knowledge and schemas that experts possess, influencing their understanding and problem-solving capabilities within their area of expertise. Memory: The highly specific and detailed memory retrieval abilities of experts, particularly in recalling domain-relevant information and patterns, enhancing their problem-solving efficiency and accuracy. Problem-solving strategies: The systematic and efficient approaches utilized by experts to address novel challenges within their field, often involving means-end heuristics, systematic analysis, and leveraging of analogies based on deep structural similarities. Speed and accuracy: The rapid and precise problem-solving performance exhibited by experts, reflecting their automaticity, parallel processing capabilities, and efficient utilization of domain-specific knowledge and strategies. Metacognitive skills: The expert ability to monitor, evaluate, and regulate problem-solving processes, including accurate judgment of task difficulty, efficient time allocation, and  25 adaptive response to errors, contributing to their overall problem-solving effectiveness and expertise development. Mental set: Applying the same solution used in previous problems, even though there is a different, easier way to solve the problem. Fixed mindset: The belief that a person possesses a certain amount of intelligence and other skills, and no amount of effort can improve performance Growth mindset: The belief that people can cultivate intelligence and other skills by challenging themselves to perform better. Functional fixedness: The tendency to assign stable (or “fixed”) functions to an object. As a result, people do not think about the features of this object that might be useful in helping solve a problem. Gender stereotypes: The beliefs and opinions that people associate with females and males. Ex) “Men are more skilled than women in solving mathematics problems” Insight vs non-insight problems Insight problem: The problem‐solving situation in which a problem initially seems impossible to solve, but then an alternative approach suddenly bursts into consciousness. The problem solver immediately realizes that the new solution is correct. ◆ Ex) A person struggling to solve a challenging riddle suddenly has an "aha!" moment and realizes the answer after considering the problem from a different perspective. Noninsight problem: A problem that a person solves gradually, by using memory, reasoning skills, and a routine set of strategies. ◆ Ex) Completing a crossword puzzle by gradually filling in answers based on clues and applying familiar vocabulary and word association strategies.  26 Explain research on metacognition during problem solving Research shows that during problem solving, metacognitive patterns differ between insight and noninsight problems: confidence builds gradually for noninsight problems but experiences a sudden leap for insight problems when the solution is near, which helps distinguish between the two types. ❖ What are the primary characteristics of creativity? Creativity involves generating solutions that are both novel and useful. How is motivation related to creativity? Intrinsic motivation, or working on tasks for personal interest and enjoyment, enhances creativity, whereas extrinsic motivation, or working for external rewards, generally decreases creativity. Chapter 12 - Deductive Reasoning and Decision Making ❖ Definition of decision making: Assessing information and choosing among two or more alternatives. Compared to deductive reasoning, decision making is much more ambiguous. How does it differ from deductive reasoning? Deductive reasoning is the type of reasoning that begins with some specific premises that are assumed to be true. Next one judges whether those premises allow a particular conclusion to be drawn, based on the principles of logic. ❖ Be able to provide an example of each decision-making heuristic below. Also, provide examples of the errors we encounter when relying on these heuristics Representativeness heuristic: A general rule in decision making that people use when trying to decide which outcome would be more likely. People who use this heuristic make judgments in terms of the similarity between the sample and the population from which the sample was selected. Small-sample fallacy: the assumption that a small sample will be representative of the population from which it is selected. This assumption often leads to incorrect decisions.  27 Ex) Visiting a restaurant twice and getting bad service both times, then assuming the restaurant always has poor service. Base-rate fallacy: Paying too little attention to important information about how often an item occurs in the population (its base rate). Ex) Seeing a news report about plane crashes and thinking air travel is very dangerous, despite statistics showing it is safer than driving. Conjunction fallacy: Error that occurs when people judge the probability of the conjunction of two events to be greater than the probability of either constituent event. Ex) Believing it is more likely that someone is both a teacher and a part-time musician than just a teacher, based on knowing they love music. Availability heuristic: Estimating frequency or probability in terms of how easy it is to think of relevant examples of something. Ex) After watching several news stories about car thefts in your neighborhood, you overestimate the probability of your own car being stolen because those examples easily come to mind. Recency bias: Estimating frequency or probability based on the most recent information available. ◆ Ex) After a recent plane crash makes the headlines, you might overestimate the danger of air travel because the recent event is fresh in your mind. Familiarity bias: Estimating frequency or probability based on how familiar you are with something.  28 ◆ Ex) You might believe that heart disease is less common than it actually is because you are more familiar with stories about cancer, having heard more about it in your social circle. Recognition heuristic: Choosing the option you recognize over the one you don't, assuming the recognized option is more frequent. ◆ Ex) If you are asked to choose between two brands of cereal and you recognize one but not the other, you might conclude that the recognized brand is more popular. Anchoring and Adjustment heuristic (aka “anchoring effect”): Beginning with a first approximation, which serves as an anchor, and then making adjustments to that anchor, based on additional information. Ex) Giving people the same math problem, 1x2x3x4x5, or 5x4x3x2x1 and people will estimate the one starting with 5 as higher ❖ What is ecological rationality and how does it differ from the heuristic approach to decision making? Ecological rationality: A description of how people create a wide variety of heuristics to help make useful, adaptive choices in the real world. Ecological rationality emphasizes context-specific adaptation of decision-making strategies, whereas the heuristic approach focuses on identifying general cognitive shortcuts used across various situations. Ex) In a jungle environment, a person quickly learns to avoid plants with certain visual cues, such as bright colors or spiky leaves, to reduce the risk of poisoning or injury. ❖ What is the framing effect? What factors influence its likelihood? Framing effect: When decisions are influenced by (1) the background context of the choice or (2) the way in which a question is worded (or framed).  29 Ex) A treatment described as having a 90% survival rate is often preferred over one framed as having a 10% mortality rate, despite the information being identical. ❖ Understand research on overconfidence in decision-making and some specific domains in which we are overconfident (e.g., political decision making and completing projects on time) Overconfidence means that your confidence judgments are higher than they should be based on your actual performance on the task. What factors increase overconfidence? Uncertain Assumptions: People often base their knowledge on uncertain assumptions and unreliable information sources. Confirmation Bias: Individuals tend to search for examples that confirm their hypotheses while resisting the search for counterexamples. Memory and Seriousness: Difficulty in recalling alternative hypotheses and failing to treat them seriously contributes to overconfidence in one's endorsed hypothesis. ❖ What is hindsight bias? Provide an example Hindsight bias: The belief, after an event has already happened, that the event had been inevitable and was predicted all along. Ex) After a team wins a sports championship, fans claim they knew all along that their team would win, ignoring any doubts they had before the game. ❖ Compare and contrast “maximizers” and “satisficers” Maximizers: People who tend to examine as many options as possible, rather than settling for something that is satisfactory. Satisficers: People who tend to settle for something that is satisfactory rather than examining numerous options.