Human Development Theories PDF

Human Development - „Soft spot‟ or spaces on the baby‟s skull that allow the growth and expansion of the brain. Chapter 1...

Human Development - „Soft spot‟ or spaces on the baby‟s skull that allow the growth and expansion of the brain. Chapter 1 - Gradually close as the baby gets older and the bones in the skull fuse together. The Concept of Developmental Psychology o Progeroid syndromes  One area of psychology that explains the course of physical, social, emotional, moral, - Rare disorders that cause premature aging and intellectual development over a person‟s and shorten life expectancy. life span. - Aging process is greatly accelerated.  Is the scientific study of how and why human  Change in Proportion - Physical development is beings change over the course of their life. not only limited to size. It is also apparent in  Is a chronology of different aspects of human mental development. At first a child is interested in development or a lifelong process from himself alone, and later in others and in toys. conception to death. Finally, his interest is directed toward members of the opposite sex.  Development - refers to the progressive series  Disappearance of Old Features - Some features of changes of an orderly and coherent type that disappear are thymus glands, baby hair, toward the goal of maturity. Babinski reflex, and baby forms of locomotion  Progressive - means the changes are such as creeping and crawling. directional, leading toward something positive.  Acquisition of New Features - New features are  “Orderly” and “Coherent” – development is not required such as the primary and secondary sex of a haphazard, usual type but rather that there is characteristics as well new mental traits like a definite relationship among the stages in the curiosity, sex, urge, knowledge, morals and developmental sequence. standards, religious belief, forms, forms of language, and type of neurotic tendencies. TYPES OF CHANGE IN DEVELOPMENT FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT  Change in Size - change in physical and mental growth. o Microcephalus  Development or unfolding of traits potentially - A rare neurological condition in which the present in the individual considering his infant's head is smaller than normal hereditary endowment. compared to other infants of the same age  According to Gesell (1977), it is the net sum and sex. of the gene effects operating in a self- - It can occur when a baby's brain has not limited lifestyle. Maturation does not only developed properly during pregnancy or has refer to changes in physical characteristics stopped growing after birth. but also in function, in the capacity to perform or to behave, which are possible - This condition is associated with through changes in any part of the organism. developmental delays, impaired cognitive development, poor coordination and balance,  Is the result of activities or day-to –day deficits in hearing and vision, and seizures. experiences on the child himself. o Fontanelle  Maturation and Learning complement one 1  another in the development of the individual. ages are greatly influenced by the roles they play. 6. Personal Experiences - Since the authority and RATE OF DEVELOPMENT prestige of middle-aged executives decrease as they , approach retirement, their attitudes toward aging are  Rapid Development - Observed during the likewise, unfavorably affected. These attitudes are prenatal period and continues throughout intensified by unfavorable social attitudes. babyhood (except for the first two weeks which is known as the “plateau” stage when no physical development takes place) up to the first six years. SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT  Slow Development - Starts from six years to adolescence. In adolescence, the rate of 1. Early Foundations Are Critical. development is once more accelerated.  Attitudes, habits, and patterns of behaviour established during the early years determine IMPLICATIONS OF THE RATE OF DEVELOPMENT to a large extent how successfully individuals will adjust to life as they grow older.  Developmental Readiness  White (1976) contends that the foundations - The individuals‟ state of preparedness respect to laid during the first two years of life are the one or more areas of his functioning. most critical. According to him, the origins of human competence are to be found in a - The effectiveness of learning depends upon critical period of time between eight and maturation. eighteen months. - Premature forcing of the child results in negativistic, resistant behavior which militates 2. The Role of Maturation and Learning in against successful learning, and which often Development retards learning. 3. Development Follows a Definite and Predictable FACTORS INFLUENCING ATTITUDES TOWARD Pattern - There are orderly patterns of physical, DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES motor, speech and intellectual development. Example the laws of developmental direction. 1. Appearance - changes that improves appearance o Cephalocaudal law - head to foot are welcome and lead to favorable attitudes while o Proximodistal law- development those that detract from one‟s appearance are resisted, spreads outward from the central axis of and every possible attempt is made to camouflage the. the body to the extremities. 2. Changes of Behavior - Those that disconcerting, especially during puberty and senescence, affect 4. All Individuals Are Different attitudes toward the changes unfavorably. 3. Cultural Stereotypes - people learn cultural 5. Each Phase of Development has a stereotypes associated with different ages from mass Characteristic “Pattern of Behavior”- marked by media and they use them to judge people of these periods of equilibrium, when individuals adapt ages. easily to environmental demands and, as a result, 4. Cultural Values - every culture has certain values make a good personal and social adjustments, and associated with different ages. by the period of disequilibrium, when they experience difficulties in adaption and, as a result, 5. Role Changes – Attitudes toward people of different 1  make poor personal and social adjustments. 4. Early childhood - from two to six years 5. Late childhood – from six to ten or twelve years. 6. Each Phase of Development Has Hazards - 6. Preadolescence or puberty - from ten or twelve Evidence show that each period in a life span has or thirteen or fourteen years. associated with its certain developmental hazards 7. Adolescence – from thirteen or fourteen years to whether physical, psychological, or environmental eighteen years. in origin. 8. Early adulthood – from eighteen to thirty-five years. 9. Middle adulthood - from thirty-five to sixty-five 7. Development is Aided by Stimulation -This can years be done by stimulating development through 10. Late adulthood or senescence (old age) - from directly encouraging the individual to use an ability sixty-five years to death. which is in the process of developing. HAVIGHURST’S DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS DURING THE 8. Development is Affected by Cultural Changes LIFESPAN (HURLOCK, 1982) 9. There is Social Expectation for every Stage of 1. Babyhood and Early Childhood Development - Havighurst labelled them  Learning to take food developmental task. He defined it as “task which  Learning to walk arise at or about a certain period in the life of the  Learning to talk Learning to control the individual, the successful achievements of which elimination of body wastes leads to happiness and to success with later tasks,  Learning sex differences and sexual modesty while failure leads to unhappiness and difficulty with Getting ready to read later tasks.”  Learning to distinguish right and wrong and 10. There are Traditional Beliefs about People of All learning to develop a conscience. Ages - Example: closely knit culture in the Philippines, stereotyping and practices relating to 2. Late Childhood old age can lead to unfavorable treatment of people  Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary in the later years of their lives. games THE MEANING OF LIFESPAN  Building a wholesome attitude toward oneself as a growing organism  Often referred to as a lifelong process  Learning to get along with age-mates beginning at conception and ending in death, Beginning to develop appropriate masculine or is a discipline worthy of study. feminine social roles.  Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, and calculating STAGES IN THE LIFESPAN  Developing concepts necessary for everyday living 1. Prenatal period - from conception to birth.  Developing conscience, a sense of morality, 2. Infancy - from birth to the end of the second and a scale of values Developing attitudes week. toward social groups and institutions Achieving 3. Babyhood -from end of the second week to end personal independence of the second year. 1   Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health 3. Adolescence  Adjusting to retirement and reduced income  Achieving new and more mature relations with  Adjusting to death of spouse age-mates or both sexes  Establishing an explicit affiliation with  Achieving a masculine or feminine social role members of one‟s age group  Accepting one‟s physique and using one‟s  Establishing satisfactory physical living body effectively arrangements  Desiring, accepting, and achieving socially  Adapting to social roles in a flexible way responsible behaviour  Achieving emotional independence from parents and other adults Developmental tasks in the life span serve three  Preparing for an economic career useful purposes:  Preparing for marriage and family life 1. They are guidelines to enable individuals to know  Acquiring a set of values and an ethical what society expects of them. system as a guide to behavior – developing an 2. They motivate individuals to do what society ideology expects. 3. They show individuals what lies ahead and what will 4. Early Adulthood be expected of them later.  Getting started in an occupation  Selecting a mate  Learning to live with a marriage partner  Starting a family  Rearing children  Managing a home  Taking on a civic responsibility  Finding a congenial social group 5. Middle age  Achieving adult, civic, and social responsibility  Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults  Developing adult leisure time activities  Relating oneself to one‟s spouse as a person  Accepting and adjusting to the physiological changes of middle age  Reaching and maintaining satisfactory performance in one‟s occupational career  Adjusting to aging parent Theories of Human Development 6. Old age Chapter 2 1  Controversies about Human Development  Worked with JEAN CHARCOT – “hypnosis”  Developed “FREE ASSOCIATION,” –the 1. INHERENTLY BAD vs INHERENTLY GOOD - fundamental rule of psychoanalysis. typically emphasize either the positive and negative  Wrote the book “INTERPRETATION OF aspects of children‟s character or perhaps will note DREAMS,” which led to the start of the that positiveness of character depends on the child‟s psychoanalytic movement. experiences. 2. NATURE vs. NURTURE- One of the oldest Freud’s Concept of Personality controversies. Are human beings a product of their heredity and other biological predispositions, or are 3 Parts Of The Mind they shaped by the environment in which they are 1. CONSCIOUS PART – contains that thoughts of raised. which you are currently aware. 3. ACTIVITY vs. PASSIVITY- Some children are 2. PRECONSCIOUS – stores all thoughts you curious, active creatures who largely contribute to the could bring into consciousness fairly easily if agents of society that treat them. Some are passive you wanted to, these are the thoughts which can souls on whom society fixes it stamp. be easily recalled without special techniques. 3. UNCONSCIOUS – the material that we have no 4. CONTINUITY vs DISCONTINUITY- Continuity immediate conscious to, and that we cannot theorist view human development as an additive bring into consciousness except under certain process that occurs in small steps, without sudden extreme situations. changes. In contrast, “discontinuity” theorist believes that the developing skill proceeds through a series of Structures of Personality abrupt changes, each of which elevates the child to a new and presumably more advanced stage. 1. ID  Serve the instincts by seeking objects that will Theories of Human Development satisfy them; operates the PLEASURE PRINCIPLE – seeking immediate gratification of A THEORY is a set of concepts and propositions institutional needs. 2. EGO that helps to describe and explain observations that one has made.  Is the executive of personality. It emerges when the psychic energy is diverted from the id to energize the important cognitive processes such PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY as perception, learning, and logical reasoning. This approach holds that behaviours are  The goal of the rational ego is served by the influenced by the unconscious processes. According to REALITY PRINCIPLE, that is, it finds realistic this approach, we are victims of unconscious sexual and ways of gratifying the instincts. aggressive instincts that constantly influence our  Is both the servant and a master to the id. behaviour. Likewise, this approach assumed that childhood experiences shape our personality later in our 3. SUPEREGO life.  The superego is the judicial branch of personality. It is the person‟s moral arbiter. It develops from the Sigmund Freud ego, represents the ideal, and strives for perfection  Born in Freinsberg, Moravia on May 6, 1856. rather than for pleasure or for reality.  Worked with JOSEPH BREUER – “catharsis” 1  motive by giving strong expression to the Freud’s Concept of Anxiety opposite. o Treating someone whom you Sex and aggression share the center of intensely dislike in a friendly manner. Freudian dynamic theory with the concept of anxiety. In  Projection - It is attributing an unconscious defining anxiety, Freud emphasized that is a felt, affective, impulse to other people instead of to oneself. unpleasant state accompanied by a physical sensation o Blaming another for your act or that warns the person against impending danger. The thinking that someone is out to get unpleasantness is often vague and hard to pinpoint, but you. the anxiety itself is always felt.  Rationalization - It is the process of justifying one‟s conduct by offering socially acceptable DEFENSE MECHANISM reasons in place of real reasons. The excuses  Defense Mechanism are thought to safeguard the are made up to hide or disguise the true motive. mind against feelings and thought that are difficult for o Arguing that “Everybody else does it, the mind to cope with. conscious so I don‟t have to feel guilty.”  Introjections - It is when people incorporate  Repression - It is the mechanism by which the positive qualities of another person into their ego prevents anxiety-provoking thoughts from own ego. being entertained in the conscious level. o A teenager who identifies with favorite o Being unaware of deep-seated movie star. hostilities toward one‟s parents.  Compensation - The process of engaging in  Sublimation - It is channelling or substituting of substitutive behaviour in order to cover up or negative id impulses into socially acceptable make up social or physical frustration or a lack actions. of ability in a certain area of personality. o Satisfying sexual curiosity by o The parents who wish their children to researching sexual behaviors enjoy advantages denied them are  Displacement - It involves channelling or compensating for achievements substituting our impulses from an original target denied them. to another less threatening person or object.  Regression - This is a mechanism in which a o Children who hate their parents or person turns to an earlier stage of development adults who hate their bosses, but are when he or she experience stress. afraid to express their hostility for fear o An old woman who is unconsciously of being punished, may displace the showing her anxiety by wearing aggression onto someone else. The clothes for teenagers. child may hit a younger brother or  Undoing - It is “cancel out” or “make-up” for a sister, or the adult may shout at the bad act by doing good. dog. o Excessively praising someone after  Denial – Refusing to accept an unpleasant having insulted. reality. o A widower who loved his wife deeply INSTINCTS, GOALS, AND MOTIVES may act as if she were still alive long Psychodynamic Forces - Is the amount of psychic (or after her death. mental) energy that an individual use to think, to learn, and  Reaction Formation - In involves concealing a to perform other mental functions. 1 DRIVES - Freud used the German word TRIEB, to refer to the body. a drive or stimulus within the person. It operates as a FIXATION – arrest on the development on constant motivational force. This includes sex drive which the person does not progress normally (LIBIDO) and aggression drives. from stage to stage but remains overly involved in one particular stage. 1. EROS (LIFE INSTINCT) – the aim of this drive is PLEASURE. Helps the species to survive; it FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL directs life-sustaining activities such as DEVELOPMENT respiration, eating, sex, and the fulfillment of all o t a. NARCISSISM – manifested h during the infant who are e primarily self-centered, with r their libido invested almost exclusively on their own ego. b o b. LOVE – develops when d people invest their libido on i an object or person other than l themselves. y c. SADISM – the need for sexual n pleasure by inflicting pain or e humiliation on another person. e d. MASOCHISM – the need for ERIK ERIKSON‟S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL d sexual pleasure from suffering STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT s pain and humiliation inflicted. CRISIS - A turning point, a crucial period of increased either by themselves or by vulnerability and increased vulnerability and heightened others. potential. 2. T HANATOS (DEATH INSTINCT) – considered as EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE - Anything that grows has a the destructive drive, according to Freud the aim ground plan, and out of this ground plan the parts arise, of this drive is to return the organism to an each having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts organic state. have arisen to form a functioning whole.” “THE CHILD IS THE FATHER OF MAN.” According to Freud, our personality was due to our childhood experiences. In addition, every child goes thru a sequence of developmental stages and that the child‟s experiences during these stages determine adult personality. EROGENOUS ZONE – pleasure – giving spot in 1  product of our habit system” which means that over the course of our lives we are conditioned to respond to certain stimuli in more or less predictable ways. WHAT IS LEARNING? Learning is process that produces relatively permanent changes in behaviour or behavioural potential. These behavioural changes are the result of one‟s experience or practice, as opposed to natural as maturation, fatigue, injury or illness. BEHAVIORAL THEORY Learned responses or habits may be acquired in several The Behavioral/Social Learning approach states ways. that behaviours are influenced by rewards, punishments, 1. is a type of and models by means of imitation. According to this learning in which a person comes to associate a approach, we act the way we do because of our neutral stimulus with a second, non-neutral environment, not because of our choice or direction. stimulus that always elicits a particular John B. Watson response.  Published an article in 1913 entitled “Psychology as 2. the Behaviorist View It,” - signaled the beginning of a is a second type of learning in which a child first new movement in psychology-behaviorism. emits a response and then comes to associate it  By 1924, with the publication of Behaviorism, he had with a particular outcome or consequence. made significant progress in his effort to redefine the 3. is a process by discipline of psychology. which we acquire new feelings, attitudes, and  He argued that only the observable could be behaviours. reasonable subject matter for a science because subjective feelings cannot be objectively observed, they have no place in an objective science. THEORIES OF SOCIAL LEARNING  Believed that the appropriate matter for psychologist 1. Neo Hullian Theory was overt behavior - that which can be observed, predicted, and eventually controlled by the scientist This theory differed from the psychoanalytic approach in 4 (Burger, 1986). important respects.  To illustrate behaviourism, Watson conducted an a. Instincts played virtually no role in Neo-Hullian experiment using Baby Albert. Below is the sequence Theory. of Watson‟s experiment. b. Personality was no longer described as a system composed of an id, ego, and superego c. Development occurs continuously and is not at all stagelike. d. Each individual was said to develop a unique habit structure (or personality), because no two persons are ever exposed to precisely the same set of social learning experiences.  According to him, PERSONALITY was the “the end 1  stimulus. According to Dollard and Miller… Personality - a system of transition: people will interact BANDURA‟S COGNITIVE SOCIAL – LEARNING with one another until the day they die and these new THEORY social encounters are continually modifying their existing SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY habits. Development – Changes that occur in a child‟s behavior  States that learning by observing the behaviour as a result of his or her experiences. of others. Bandura proposes that human beings are capable of creating their own standards of performance that can serve to guide behaviour OPERANT CONDITIONING (BURRHUS F. SKINNER) in the absence of any external sources of “RADICAL BEHAVIORISM/ INSTRUMENTAL reinforcement. CONDITIONING”  Bandura believes that new behaviors are  It is the use of consequence/s to form or modify acquired through two major kinds of learning: the occurrence of behaviour. o Observational Learning  Skinner‟s theory is considered radical o Enactive Learning behaviourism because I focus exclusively on the external stimuli (reward and punishment) that influence our  B.F. Skinner devised a box which is called “Skinner‟s Box.” In the box, there is a push- button and food pellets inside the food dispenser. Then, he put the hungry rat inside  Cognitive theorists like Bandura believes that and since its hungry – the rat was restless and human development is best described as a was moving around the box. Accidentally, the rat continuous reciprocal interaction between pushed the button, then the pellet appears from children and their environments: the the food dispenser. And since, the rat was environment clearly affects the child, but the hungry, he repeatedly pushed the button to get child‟s behaviour is thought to affect the food pellets. environment as well. The implication is that children are actively involved in creating the Four procedures of Operant Conditioning environments that will influence their growth and 1. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - occurs when the development. behavior is followed by a favourable stimulus. 2. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - occurs when the THE COGNITIVE-DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY behaviour is followed by the removal of aversive/unfavourable stimulus. According to Jean Piaget, children are neither 3. POSITIVE PUNSIHMENT - occurs when the driven by undesirable instincts nor molded by behaviour is followed by unfavourable/aversive environmental influences. Instead, he and his followers stimulus. view children as constructivists- that is, as curious, active explorers who respond to the environment 4. NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT - occurs when the according to their understanding of its essential features. behaviour is followed by the removal of favourable According to Piaget, human beings inherit two 1 important intellectual functions which he called people laugh. With this new “organization” and “adaptation”. knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit better to a standard  - Any concept or idea of how the concept of “clown.” world works. In psychology and cognitive, a schema describes a pattern of thought or  - the force which moves behavior that organizes knowledge and guide development along. Piaget believed that cognitive processes and behavior. cognitive development did not progress at a o Example: A person might have a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds. It schema about buying a meal in a occurs when a child‟s schemas can deal with restaurant. The schema is a stored most new information through assimilation. form of the pattern of behavior which However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium includes looking at the menu, ordering occurs when new information cannot be fitted food, eating it, and paying the bill. into existing schemas (assimilation). (SCRIPT) Whenever they are in a restaurant, they retrieve this schema from memory and apply it to the situation.  - is part of an individual‟s adaptation process where we take in new information and experiences and incorporate them into our existing ideas. This process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experience or information to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. o Ex: A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has a long frizzy hair on the sides. To his father‟s horror, the toddler shouts “clown, clown!”  - Changing something in a schema to fit a new experience. This happens STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT when existing schema (knowledge) does not work and needs to be changed to deal with a All children go through the same stages in the same order. new object or situation. You can only be on one stage at a time. o In the “clown” incident, the boy‟s It is not possible to regress into the previous stage. father explained to his son that the man was not a clown and that even thou his hair was like a clown‟s, he 1. Sensori-Motor Stage wasn‟t wearing funny costume and We develop through experiences and wasn‟t doing silly things to make 1 movement of our 5 senses. Our brain wants to see, hear, curious and ask many questions, we want to know smell, taste and touch as much as possible. everything. We can call it the BIRTH OF PRIMITIVE First, we start with simple reflexes and soon REASONING, Piaget calls it the INTUTIVE AGE because after we develop our first habits. From 4 months old, we while we realize that we have a vast amount of knowledge become aware of things beyond our own body and then as we have no idea how we acquire it. we get older, we learn to do things intentionally. A key milestone is the DEVELOPMENT OF  Animism – “The bookshelf is mad at me.” WORKING MEMORY or in PIAGET‟S TERM, OUR  Artificialism – “The teapot was whistling at REALIZATION OF OBJECT PERMANENCE. me.”  Transductive Reasoning – “The teapot starting whistling because teddy fell off his chair.” Pre- Reflexes – innate reactions that you are born with. operational children may engage in imaginary Example: Mhyguel is born with the desire to suck and play. make sucking motions, so he can suck on a bottle or his  Egocentrism – “My perspective is everyone‟s mother‟s breast to get food. perspective.”  PRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - At about 3. Concrete Operational Stage 1-4 months, Mhyguel may start to clap his We finally discover logic, and we develop hands when he is happy. concrete cognitive operations such as sorting objects in a  SECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - At 4- certain order. 8 months, Mhyguel may start to play with objects in his environment. One example of this is INDUCTIVE REASONING which said that if we see someone eating  COORDINATION OF SECONDARY cookies, we can draw a conclusion and then make a CIRCULAR REACTIONS - At 8-12 months, generalization and we now get the concept of after playing with sand shovel, Mhyguel may CONSERVATION. push a toy out of the way to get his sand shovel to play with, thus accomplishing a goal. We understand that if we pour orange juice from a normal glass to a taller one the amount stays the same.  TERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS - Mhyguel Our brain helps to rearrange our thoughts to classify and digs a hole to build a sand castle and then puts build concrete operational mental structures. We begin to the sand back into the hole. understand that our thoughts and feelings are unique and not necessarily those of others. 2. Pre-Operational Stage A. Seriation - Skills can be defined as “the ability Our thinking is mainly categorized through to arrange objects in order by size”. symbolic functions and intuitive thoughts. We have lots of The development of seriation skills is a step-by- fantasies and believe objects are alive. step developmental process. As children grow As we are not able to apply specific cognitive and develop, their ability to seriate will operations, Piaget called this stage PRE-OPERATIONAL. also develop. For instance, a very We learn to speak and understand that words, images, young child (two years old) may not be able and gestures are symbol for something else. to seriate at all. At around age 4, most of us become very B. Hierarchal classification - Classification is the 1  ability to identify the properties of categories, to DEVELOPMENT relate categories or classes to one another, and to use categorical information to solve problems. MORAL DEVELOPMENT C. Reversibility - refers to the ability to recognize Moral character happens in a particular that numbers or objects can be changed and developmental sequence, and each stage is distinctly returned to their original condition. different. Regardless of one‟s environmental structure, D. Decentration - involves the ability to pay moral character is not fixed. Moral development differs attention to multiple attributes of an object or according to the orientation and innate characteristics of situation rather than being locked into attending the individual. to only a single attribute. The system of laws is defined as what is E. Transitivity - refers to the ability to recognize common to all and what is socially good. A problem is not relationships among various things in a serial solely based on a certain law but is the product of the order. whole system. An individual has a commitment and F. Deductive reasoning - Deductive logic requires obligation to all others, not only to himself or those related the ability to use a general principle to to himself. determine a particular outcome. 4. Formal operational stage Once we become teenagers, we become formally operational. We now have the ability to think more rationally about abstract concepts and hypothetical events. Our advanced cognitive abilities allow us to understand abstract concepts such as success and failure, love and hate. We form a deeper understanding about our own identity and our morality. We now also think that we STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT understand why people behave the way they do and as a result can become more compassionate.  PRECONVENTIONAL STAGE Our brain can now do DEDUCTIVE REASONING, which means we can compare two STAGE 1: statements and reach a logical generalization. Our new  Centers on the self: “Might makes right.” mental skill allows us to plan our lives systematically and  “Survival of the fittest.” prioritize, and we can make assumptions about events that have no necessary relation to reality.  Behavior is based on obedience and moral understanding and obedience to a powerful We can now also philosophize and just think superior to avoid physical punishment. about thinking itself. Our new sense of our identity now  The self is dominated by other material forces of also creates egocentric thoughts and some start to see an power. imaginary audience watching them all the time.  It is dependent on the physical cause and effect. Learning of moral value and obedience arises LAWRENCE KOHLBERG‟S THEORY OF MORAL out of fear. 1  behaviors of the people. STAGE 2:  Laws can be conflicting. What is ideal may not be practical, or moral at the present time. This  Satisfies self at the expense of what other dilemma requires a more comprehensive stage people can do for oneself or what benefit can be of learning. In spite of this dilemma, the rule of achieved. honor and duty is learned, which is needed to  “You scratch my back and I‟ll scratch yours.” It is preserve the society. not concerned with others but with what can fulfill one‟s own personal needs and look for people to provide means of compromising or  POSTCONVENTIONAL STAGE expecting something in return.  Allowing the child to make mistakes as long as STAGE 5: he can get away with it leads to making deals  Depends on a social contract. with wrongdoings. Being righteous can be a  The series of systems are in written documents. disadvantage by being the last on the line of  Thinking pertaining to judgment and reasoning lists. needs the capability to analyze principles. This standardized and structured principle is used as  CONVENTIONAL STAGE a basis in solving dilemmas and conflicts.  Applied in abstract thinking, weighing logical STAGE 3: and emotional justice. Every situation or  is other-directed. It aims to please everyone by circumstance is regarded as complex. Solutions confirming social roles. It follows traditional are derived from varied points of view and norms of a particular society where one lives. considered carefully which later can. Before taking responsibility, it takes into account  Understands human complexity and individuality other views and feelings. – that there is no easy solution to human  Thinking becomes comprehensive and problems and morals issues. complicated because it has to consider social perspectives. STAGE 6  A problem can cause conflict to what one  according to universal social justice. believes against the belief of most people causes conflict the self is unable to manage  Unlike stage 5, there may be no written independently. documents. The principles are consistent with respect for the human rights of all human  Being good is to be “nice” to be accepted or beings. belong to the group. Here, one comes to learn affection as needed.  The principles of dignity, equality, and justice are upheld.  Concepts on human rights are universal, STAGE 4: regardless of cultural boundaries.  Decisions are made according to the established rules and laws where one lives. It does not follow the self or others; but rather the ETHOLOGICAL THEORY comprehensive, existing system of society Ethology is the study of the biological bases of provides guidance in decision making. behaviour, including its evolution, causation, and  Society to be stable, sets standards to guide the development (Carins, 1979). 1  According to ethologists, members of each species are born with a number of innate responses that are products of evolution. These “biologically programmed” behaviours are thought to have evolved as a result of the Darwinian process of natural selection. Ethologists clearly acknowledge that we are largely a product of our experiences. Yet they are quick to remind us that we are inherently biological creatures who have inborn characteristics that affect the kinds of learing experience we are likely to have. SOCIOBIOLOGICAL THEORY Sociobiology, closely related to ethology (Bell and Bell, 1989), is a new and controversial discipline that focuses on the biological foundations of social behaviour in species ranging from amoeba colonies to human societies. Sociobiology views organisms as only the gene‟s way of making more genes. It depicts organisms. It depicts organisms primarily as survival machines for genes. Individual organisms may die, but their genes live on in future generations. 1