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1 PSYC213 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dr Natasha Loi Lecture 2 Theories of human development (Chapter 2; pp. 46-85) ‘Lifespan Development’©. Retrieved 30/05/2014 ...

1 PSYC213 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dr Natasha Loi Lecture 2 Theories of human development (Chapter 2; pp. 46-85) ‘Lifespan Development’©. Retrieved 30/05/2014  2 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of the University of New England pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under (the Act). Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice.  3 Learning Objectives To understand: 1. The four issues addressed by theories of human development 2. Some of the major theoretical viewpoints and identify the key theorists 3. The distinctive features, contributions, and weaknesses of the major theories 4. How, through comparisons of different theories, we can understand developmental growth and challenges more fully  4 What is a Theory? A set of orderly statements to describe, explain and predict certain phenomena in various domains Qualities of a good theory: Internally consistent Provide meaningful explanations Open to scientific evaluation Stimulate new thinking and research Provide guidance in application  5 Key Developmental Themes Nature—nurture Big question: Is it nature or nurture? Or is the question misleading? Maturation—experience Activity—passivity Big question: Are children passive recipients of experience, or do we actively construct the way we develop?  6 Key Developmental Themes Continuity—discontinuity Process or stage Big question: Are we different people at different phases of our lives, or are we always the same just with more experience? Universality—context-specificity Big question: In what way is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture, and in what ways does it differ depending on the social context?  7 Psychoanalytic Theories: Freud Central idea: humans have instincts that unconsciously motivate behaviour Structure of personality Id – pleasure principle; impulsive, irrational, and selfish part of personality Ego – reality principle; rational aspect that seeks to gratify ‘Sigmund Freud’. Wikimedia Commons. Creative Commons License. Retrieved 30/05/2014 instincts Superego – conscience; internalised moral standards  8 Psychoanalytic Theories: Erikson Expanded and refined Freud’s stages – “Neo-Freudian” Eight stages – each stage associated with a crisis to be resolved Development reversible Differences with Freud: Greater emphasis on social influence and less on sexual urges ‘Erik Erikson’ © Waveformula. Wikimedia More emphasis on rational ego and less on Commons. Retrieved 30/05/2014 unconscious, irrational, and selfish id More positive, adaptive view of human nature Development continues after adolescence  9 Freud and Erikson In Life Span Human Development Third Australian and NewZealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  10 Psychoanalytic Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions Emphasised unconscious processes Emphasised importance of early experience and emotions Erikson: Emphasised interaction of biological and social influences Weaknesses Not testable and not falsifiable Describes development but doesn’t explain how it occurs  11 Learning Theories ‘Learning’ © R M Media. Creative Commons 3. Retrieved 22/05/2018 Long-lasting change in behaviour, based on experience or adaptation to the environment  12 Learning Theory: Behaviourism We respond based on whether the situation is: Painful or threatening Pleasurable Associative learning ‘Learning Theory: Behaviourism’. In Human Development (11th ed.). By D.E. Papalia, Olds, S.W., and Feldman, R.D. McGraw Hill Companies Inc. New York, NY. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  13 Classical Conditioning: Watson John Watson: Conditioning of fear “Little Albert” 1. Albert liked the furry rat 2. Rat is then presented with loud ‘CRASH’ 3. Albert cried because of the noise ‘John Broadus Watson at Johns Hopkins c. 1908-1921’ 4. Eventually, sight of the rat made Albert cry © Unknown. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 30/05/2014 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xt0ucxOrPQE  14 Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning ‘The Three Phases of Classical Conditioning’. In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  15 Pavlov’s Cats? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MagG3RZto_w  16 Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning: Skinner Behaviourism: conclusions should be based on observable behavior Learner’s behaviour is more/less probable depending upon contingent consequences (reinforcement ‘B.F. Skinner at the Harvard Psychology Department, circa 1950’. Wikimedia Commons Image, GNU Free Documentation License. Retrieved 30/05/2014 vs. punishment)  17 Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Strengthens response; increases likelihood of behaviour reoccurring Can be positive or negative Positive: giving a reward Lollies for finishing a task; saying “well done!” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qy_mIEnnlF4 Negative: Removing something aversive No chores for getting an A+ on homework  18 Operant Conditioning: Punishment Weakens response; decreases likelihood of behaviour reoccurring Can be positive or negative Positive: Adding something aversive Getting scolded; smacking Negative: Removing something pleasant Taking away car keys; getting a time out  19 Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  20 Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura Emphasises the motivating, self- regulating role of cognition Observational learning Accomplished by observing models (i.e., imitation, modelling) Bobo doll study ‘Albert Bandura’ ©. Retrieved 04/06/2014  21 Bobo Doll Experiment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pr0OTCVtHbU In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  22 Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory: Bandura Additional aspects of social cognitive theory: Human agency Self-efficacy Reciprocal determinism ‘Reciprocal Determinism’. In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  23 Learning Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions Theories are precise/testable Principles apply across the lifespan Practical applications are possible Weaknesses Inadequate accounts of developmental changes Little consideration of genetics and maturation  24 Humanistic Theories: Maslow Emphasises the inherent “goodness” in people Maslow: Hierarchy of needs ‘Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs’. In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  25 Humanistic Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions Focused on psychological wellness as more than simply absence of disease Focus on positive dimensions Foundation for positive psychology Weaknesses Initial theories and concepts too broad and hard to measure Universality of hierarchy questioned  26 Cognitive Theories Focus on how thinking and problem- solving skills develop Piaget’s cognitive theory ‘Cognition’ © Open Clipart-Vectors. CC0 Creative Commons. Retrieved 22/05/2018  27 Cognitive Theories: Piaget Clinical method Combining observation with flexible questioning Interaction between biological maturation and experience is responsible for developmental progress from one stage to the next ‘Jean Piaget in Ann Arbor’. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain License. Retrieved 24/2/14 Constructivism  28 Cognitive Theories: Piaget ‘In Life Span Development First Edition, By J Santrock. McGraw-Hill Education (Australia). Reproduced with permission from publisher.  29 Cognitive Theories: Vygotsky and Information Processing Approach Vygotsky: Disagrees with universal stages Cognitive development is shaped by sociocultural context Social constructivism Information Processing Approach ‘Lev Vygotsky’. Unknown Author. Wikimedia Commons. Image subject to copyright by Examines fundamental processes of attention, original author ©. Retrieved 25/2/14 memory, decision making, etc.  30 Theories of Adult Cognitive Development ‘The Schaie-Willis Seven-stage Model of Life Span Cognitive Development.’ ‘In Life Span Human Development Third Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  31 Cognitive Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions Well researched, mostly supported Influenced education and parenting Vygotsky highlighted importance of social interaction and culture Weaknesses Too little consideration of motivation/emotion Piaget underestimated some abilities Little emphasis upon parents and caregivers  32 Systems Theories Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological model Recall from Lecture 1 Gottlieb’s epigenetic psychobiological systems perspective Evolutionary theory considers how characteristics and behaviours may have been adaptive in the past  33 Systems Theories: Gottlieb Development is the product of interacting biological and environmental influences Genes and environment interact Epigenesis: ‘over and above’ genes ‘Gottlieb’s Model of Bidirectional Influences’. In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  34 Systems Theories: Contributions and Weaknesses Contributions Calls attention to transactions between individual and environment Weaknesses Only partially formulated and tested No coherent developmental theory  35 Theories in Perspective Freud, Erikson, and Piaget Stage theorists Biological–maturational forces Parents are supporters of development Watson, Skinner, and Bandura Learning theorists Emphasise environment more than biology Parents are children’s trainers  36 Theories in Perspective Vygotsky, Maslow, and systems/information processing theorists Biology and environment are inseparable components of a larger system Parents are partners with their children in the development process  37 Comparison and Implications Theories help to systematically organise ideas Theories can stimulate new thinking and guide understandings and professional practice No one theory can provide a complete explanation, but together may be complementary Need to remain critical in our considerations about theories  38 Compare the Theorists  39 ‘Compare Yourself with the Theorists’. In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  Genes, environment, and the beginnings of life and mentioning; what Mendel got wrong, ways men are inferior, Frank and Earnest, 5HTTLPR, unicorns, and reading in Scandinavia. Dr William Coventry Psychology University of New England Authors of this lecture: - William Coventry 1  Sections of your text (N.B. these align with the Learning Outcomes on Moodle) 3.1 Individual heredity Covered in this 3.2 The interplay of genes & environment lecture 3.3 Prenatal stages Not covered 3.4 The prenatal environment & foetal health in this lecture. 3.5 The perinatal environment Please see your 3.6 The neonatal environment text! 2  Order of topics of the text covered in this lecture 3.1 3.2 3 Mendel’s first law of heredity – Law of segregation For each trait, our genes segregate into two parts We then pass one part of these genes (i.e. half) onto our offspring The other half is from the other parent 4  Punnet square – Dominant allele (A) – for black mice – Recessive allele (a) – for white mice – Homozygote (AA or aa) – Heterozygote (Aa) 5 Will the offspring have black or white coats? 6  Basic concepts Phenotype = observable or measurable characteristics – Hair color, iq Genotype = genetic complement of person – Having a recessive gene for color blindness 7  Laws of inheritance: dominant single-gene disorder 8  Huntington’s Disease How does Huntington’s disease persist even though it is a terminal disease? – It is not expressed until after the reproductive years – It is now possible to use genetic testing to determine if the Huntington Disease gene is present 9  Laws of inheritance: recessive single-gene disorder 10  PKU How does PKU disease persist even though the phenotype presents as an intellectual disability? – It is recessive, so you can be a carrier without knowing it Why are recessive traits like PKU more likely to exist in the children of parents who are genetically related than in parents who are unrelated? – If you have an allele for PKU then it must be in your family, and if you marry someone genetically related to you, then it is more likely that they too will carry a PKU allele. 11  Mendel’s second law of heredity Law of independent assortment – The inheritance of one gene is not affected by the inheritance of another gene This indeed occurs, but only when the genes affecting a phenotype are found on different chromosomes or separated by a great enough distance on the same chromosome. – Mendel was lucky: he studies traits that were not close together on the same chromosome – Had he studied traits that were near each other his results would not have suggested independence 12  What Mendel got wrong Genes near each other on the chromosome tend to be transmitted together This occurs via the process of recombination This occurs on average once per chromosome in the formation of gametes passed from parents to offspring 13 14  Linkage Genetic linkage occurs as an exception to independent assortment – Linkage develops when genes appear near one another on the same chromosome This causes the genes to usually be inherited together as a single unit – Genes inherited in this way are said to be linked – E.G. in fruit flies, the genes affecting eye color and wing length are inherited together because they appear on the same chromosome 15  Colour blindness shows a pattern of inheritance that does not appear to conform to Mendel’s laws of heredity. The sex chromosomes, – Females: X X Males: X Y 16  Color vision deficiency – Due to a recessive gene on the X chromosome Males – only need the recessive allele on their only X chromosome and they will be color blind Females – must inherit the recessive allele on both X chromosomes Hence, the incidence of color blindness is higher in males 17  Sons must inherit their X chromosome c = recessive allele CB from their for color blindness mother, so they are color blind C = normal allele CB CB Color blindness (CB) Daughters must = males CB inherit their father’s X = females chromosome, so they are carriers Half her sons will inherit her recessive color blindness allele on their only X CB chromosome 18  If a disorder has a greater incidence in Males than Females, – it suggests it is due to a recessive gene on the sex chromosomes. Sex-limited gene – Generally on autosomal (non-sex) chromosomes – The genes are in males and females but are only activated in one sex, e.g. facial hair in males So far, we have only considered single-gene disorders 19  In summary…. There have been huge successes finding genes that are inherited in a simple way (single-gene disorders). – The first was for Huntington’s disease, (1993). Others here include Cystic fibrosis and Kennedy’s disease. These disorders, however, are comparatively uncommon. 20  There are a host of disorders that are much more widely spread throughout the world – For example; cancer, cardiovascular disease, various neurodegenerative diseases, obesity, addictive behavior (causing addiction to smoking or alcohol), depression and personality. These are called Polygenic/Common/Complex diseases or traits 21  Common/Complex Diseases The genetic “single complexity of gene” these diseases has meant that is it much more difficult to find the specific genes involved This is because the genes are of small effect [Glazier et al. 2002] 22  R A Fisher (1890 – 1962) Mendel’s laws of heredity still apply for complex traits, as identified by Fisher -He extended Mendel’s single gene model to the multi-gene model of quantitative genetics -Member of Eugenics society 23  R A Fisher (1890 – 1962) - Published "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance“ (1918). - This paper laid the foundation for what came to be known as biometrical/quantitative genetics -The paper showed very convincingly that the inheritance of continuous traits was consistent with Mendelian principles. 24  Complex traits Most heritable human traits are affected by many genes - polygenic Just three genes 25 According to Frank and Earnest, its in the genes! 26  Behavior Genetics What explains the variance (i.e. differences among individuals)? 27  Differences among individuals (variance) are dissected into the following: total variance genetic variance environmental variance (broad sense) “family” or “common” additive genetic environment (A) (C) (narrow sense) dominant genetic unique environment (D) (E) (also known as non-additive; NA) 28 Heritability coefficient Extent to which variation in the trait can be accounted for by genes Can be between 0 and 1.0 (it is sometimes just presented as a percentage) 29  Are the following genetic or environmental? Genetic Family Unique Env. Env. Depression 40 - 45% 55 - 60% Autism 90% 10% Stature (height) 80% 5% 15% Neuroticism 40% 60% Body Mass Index (weight) 60% 5% 35% Vote choice (Labor v Conservative) Males 80% 20% Females 30% 50% 20% Divorce 30 – 50% Low 50 – 70% IQ 70% 15% 15% 30  Are the following genetic or environmental? Multiple Sclerosis % Genetic % Family % Unique (with Confidence Intervals in brackets) (ci) Env. (ci) Env. (ci) Ristori et al, 2008; 51 MZ & 147 DZ pairs 48 (6-86) 29 (0-60) 23 (12-39) Kuusisto et al, 2008; 10 MZ & 14 DZ pairs 15 (0-78) 74 (14-94) 11 (2-30) 31  Genes aren’t destiny Just because a trait shows genetic determinism doesn’t mean nothing can be done to change it – The link between specific genes and behavior is weak, with many genes are involved – Probabilistic propensity Higher genetic risk of Major Depression Does not guarantee the disorder will occur Heritability does not prevent an extreme environmental remedy 32 33  Why a fear of heredity is misguided Environmentality was dangerous – “Mother blaming” that occurred with schizophrenia. – 40 years ago if your child had schizophrenia the mother was usually blamed. Sense of relief: the clinical experience of patients with heritable disorders – This is the observations of a clinical psychologist working with such patients 34  How do we partition the variance into genes and the environment? Adopted children (were popular initially) – Samples became scarce when adoption rates fell, partly due to advent of the contraceptive pill (1970s) Twin pairs (and their extended family) Other methods – Have been used more recently E.g. GCTA (Genome-wide Complex Trait Analysis) – Will spare you the details – Broadly, the findings have aligned with the findings of twin and family studies 35  Twin Studies Gained momentum in the 1970’s – When the Classical Twin Design was developed Twin registries around the world – 2002 there were 36 – 2006 there were 52 Vol 9(6) of Twin Research and Human Genetics (2006) 36  Twins Talking here about twins reared together. Identical Twins, share Fraternal Twins, share 100% of their genes 50% of their genes 37  Twin studies Genetic similarities “Identical” (or monozygotic, MZ) twins have all their genes in common “Fraternal” (or dizygotic, DZ) have (on average) half their genes in common Environmental similarities MZ and DZ twins share the same common environment MZ and DZ twins share none of their unique environment 38  Twin studies Genetic Family Unique Environment Environment MZ Same Same Different DZ Half Same Different alike 39  Twin studies So for traits that are highly heritable, MZ twins will be very similar to each other, and DZ twins about half as similar as each other For traits that are highly influenced by shared environment, MZ twins will be similar to each other, and DZ twins will be also and to about the same degree For traits that are highly influenced by unique environment, both MZ and DZ twins will be no more alike that randomly selected individuals 40  Genetic or environmental? MZ different Unique DZ different Environment MZ very similar DZ half as similar Genetic MZ similar Family DZ similar Environment MZ different Error in your DZ similar data… 41  Twin and family studies Have these been a success, or misguided? – Matthew Keller – Questioned the heredity estimated – Were the estimates accurate? – For the most part, the methods are pretty sound – The field has acknowledge their own limitations And is aware of the biases 42 43  Now that we know complex (polygenic) traits and disorders are heritable – And with (a) the human genome sequenced (in 2000), and (b) the capacity today to do whole genome scans (humans have 35 mill. genes) – There is merit in trying to find the genes involved…. 44  Traditionally, – Were used to investigate genes thought to be candidates for an association with a trait Example – Serotonin drugs reduce depression, so the Serotonin Transporter gene might be associated with depression – Large samples have required since the genes we were searching for were of small effect (i.e. ave odds ratio of 1.2) At least we thought they were that big……. – Again, initial gene findings did not always replicated Review of 600 reported associations with common medical diseases, only 6 have been consistently replicated (2002) – Example – Serotonin Transporter gene 45 46  The serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) The short ‘s’ allele is associated with lower transcriptional efficiency than the long ‘l’ allele (Lesch et. al. 1996) Cells release serotonin into the synapse. The transporter takes the excess back into the cell before it is degraded. In individuals with the ‘s’ alleles, the transporter molecules are less efficient and fewer in number. 47 The serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphic region (5-HTTLPR) 48  44 base pair insertion (l) or deletion (s) 49 ‘l’ allele 50 ‘s’ allele 51  The Serotonin Transporter (5HTT) is a candidate gene for various affective disorders Major Depression Violent Suicide For individuals with the ‘short’ allele, the Odds of 1.3 (Duffy, 2005) odds of getting major depression are 52 slightly greater than 1  Odds Ratios What does an odds ratio of 1.3 mean? – For every 100 without depression, 30 will have an ll genotype, against – For every 100 with depression, 25 will have an ll genotype Alternatively – For every 100 without depression, 70 will have an s allele, against – For every 100 with depression, 75 will have an s allele 53  Interactions between a single gene and the environment – Environment influences effect some genotypes in one way but other genotypes in a different way Your text mentions the Caspi (2003) paper (p 111) as a notable example 54  Serotonin Evidence for a G  E Transporter gene interaction Stressful Major N = 1037, Life Events depression aged 26 yrs. 55  Caspi et. The raw data! al. (2003) Figure 3.11 from your text 56  No interaction – 3rd largest sample to date. “Reported interactions comprise inconsistent modes of action (additive, S-dominant, and even L-dominant), crossover interactions and show evidence of publication bias” 57  The interaction by Caspi et al. (2003) led to 55 follow-up studies until 2011 (Karg et al. 2011) And these had inconsistent results! 58  This meta-analysis found strong support for an interaction, p=.00002. 59 “We found strong evidence that a serotonin transporter promoter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) moderates the relationship between stress and depression, with the less functional s allele associated with increased stress sensitivity”. 60  Critiques of Karg Duncan and Keller (American J of Psychiatry, 2011) Concluded “most, if not all, candidate gene studies are false positives”. 61  Critiques of Karg Presentation I gave, showing p-hacking (i.e. heterogeneity in analytic techniques) in the studies finding results akin to the original Caspi et al (2003) finding. 62 Followup of Karg 63  Association studies Direct association – When the DNA marker is itself the functional gene Indirect association or Linkage disequilibrium – When the DNA marker is very close to the functional gene 64  Association studies Until just a few years ago, studies were limited to candidate genes or regions – A hit-and-miss approach… Because assay costs have decreased and a modest number of variants can represent all genes, genome- wide association studies (GWAS) have been possible. 65  Genome-wide association studies (GWAS): ~2007→… – Use a dense map or markers – To scan the genome thoroughly, GWAS marks ~1mill SNPs (i.e. genes) (humans have 35mill genes, so GWAS marks ~1 in every 35 genes) compared to a few hundred for linkage) – Large samples are needed to detect genes of small effect Upwards of 1000 (500 cases and 500 controls) – (Microarrays can now be used to genotype hundreds of thousands of SNPs on a chip the size of a postage stamp). – Then see if any of these SNPs are associated with the phenotype 66  What if we could use GWAS to check on the results of the association studies? Summary so far…. GxE – Caspi – Karg – Keller – Coventry – Culverhouse Up next: GWAS – Border 67  No support for the candidate genes of depression American Journal of Psychiatry, 2019 Used GWAS to check on the candidate genes… 68 No support for the candidate genes of depression 69 No support for the candidate genes of depression 70  Review of Boarder et al. (2019) by Scott Alexander First, what bothers me isn’t just that people said 5-HTTLPR mattered and it didn’t. It’s that we built whole imaginary edifices, whole castles in the air on top of this idea of 5- HTTLPR mattering. This isn’t just an explorer coming back from the Orient and claiming there are unicorns there. It’s the explorer describing the life cycle of unicorns, what unicorns eat, all the different subspecies of unicorn, which cuts of unicorn meat are tastiest, and a blow-by-blow account of a wrestling match between unicorns and Bigfoot. The problem is more like “you can get an entire field with hundreds of studies analyzing the behavior of something that doesn’t exist”. 71  Is GWAS (Genome-wide association studies) the answer? 1. It is now the consensus view in behavior genetics that CGA (candidate gene association) studies were a failure. – Matthew Keller recently asked, “How on Earth could we have spent 20 years and hundreds of millions of dollars studying pure noise?” (quoted in Yong, 2019). 2. Is GWAS the answer? 72  Is GWAS (Genome-wide association studies) the answer? - GWAS: This new phase has been termed a “golden age” of genetic research! One view by Charney (2021) is as follows: Although the methodologies of GWAS differ and GWAS can see things CGA can’t, GWAS is beset by some of the same problems that led to the failure of CGA studies! That said, GWAS has successfully detected new genes (that were unknown previously) To use cognitive ability as an example, hundreds of genes have been detected To have large enough samples, projects from around the world have had to be combined! 73  Summary so far…. Attempts to find the genes for Mendelian disorders (single gene disorders) has tracked smoothly Efforts to estimate variance explained by genes / environment (using twin/family studies): been ok – With biases acknowledge Attempts to find ‘candidate’ genes for complex traits using association studies: complete failure – We used the e.g. of a ‘candidate’ G x E GWAS, more successful What about using twin studies to explore G x E and GEr? 74  Gene by Environment Correlations Genetic control of exposure to the environment – Musically gifted child (genetically) grows up in a house full of instruments An environmental phenotype turns out to be partly heritable Gene by Environment Interactions – Different environments give rise to either Different estimates of heritability (higher h2 for MD if unmarried) Why is it important to study them...? Estimates of A, C and E are biased if you don’t! 75 Gene by Environment Correlations – Passive Child receives genotypes correlated with the family environment – Evocative Others react to individuals based on the genetic propensities of these individuals – Active Individuals seek or create environments correlated with their genetic proclivities 76  Gene by Environment Correlations – 4 methods of identifying gene environment correlations – We will skip these, way to complex! 77  Gene by Environment interactions 1.Interactions between a singe gene and the environment 2.Interactions between “genetic variability” and “environmental variability” Purcell Moderated Regression Model 78  Gene by Environment interactions Looked at twin pair correlations for depression, separately for – Twin pairs where both were married, a2=.29 – Twin pairs where neither were married, a2=.42 if younger than 30 a2=.51 if older than 30 79  Gene by Environment interactions Having a marriage-like relationship acts as a protective factor in reducing the impact of inherited liability to symptoms of depression in the general population 80  Genetics of reading study Data collected from 3 sites, Australia (Brian Byrne), US and Scandinavia In kindergarten, there are country differences in the intensity of literacy instruction: Least Most Scandinavia US Australia 81  Scandinavia U.S. genes genes sh. env sh. env unique env. unique env. Australia genes sh. env unique env. Kindergarten word reading 82 One year later, the three countries show similar, substantial effects of genes All countries now teach literacy intensively 83  Grade 1 reading Scandinavia U.S. genes genes sh. env sh. env unique env. unique env. Australia genes sh. env unique env. 84  Summary Mechanisms of inheritance - Single-gene-pair inheritance (Mendel) - Sex-linked inheritance - Polygenic (i.e. multiple gene) inheritance The interplay of genes and environment - Twin and family studies (estimating the extent of heredity) - Molecular genetics (finding the genes) - Candidate gene association (CGA) studies: disaster - Genome wide association studies (GWAS): a step beyond CGA! - GE correlations and interactions 85  1 PSYC213 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dr Natasha Loi Lecture 4 Body, brain, and health (Chapter 4; pp. 148-197) Developmental psychopathology (Chapter 12; 601-607) ‘Early Child Development’ ©. Retrieved 12/06/2014  2 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of the University of New England pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under (the Act). Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice.  3 Learning Objectives To understand: 1. How the brain changes over the lifespan and how this influences behaviour and functioning 2. The major growth principles that underlie physical and motor development 3. Some of the key health challenges at various stages of the lifespan 4. The types and causes of dementia  4 The Brain and Nervous System Central nervous system Brain and nerve cells of the spinal cord Coordination and control of perception and motor responses At birth, brain is c. 25% of adult weight By 5yrs, grown to 90% of adult weight Growth of neurons and connecting fibres Connections become myelinated ‘Brain’. Clip Art. Microsoft. Retrieved 10/06/2014.  5 Principles of Growth Growth patterns follows three trends: 1. Cephalocaudal (head to tail) Head larger and more developed compared to body Use upper parts of body before lower part 2. Proximodistal (near to far) Centre outwards E.g., head and trunk before arms and legs, hands and feet, then lastly fingers and toes 3. Orthogenetic (undifferentiated to differentiated) Global and undifferentiated to more hierarchical/differentiated and integrated E.g., a single cell at conception liver cells  6 Proportions of Physical Growth In Life Span Human Development Third Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  7 The Infant: Newborn Capabilities Survival reflexes are adaptive Breathing, eye-blink, sucking Primitive reflexes are less adaptive and typically disappear in early infancy Persistence of primitive reflexes can suggest neurological problems  8 Early Human Reflexes Tonic neck reflex Grasping (fencing) Rooting ‘Newborn’s Reflexes’ Juriah Mosin ©. Retrieved ‘Rooting’ ©. Retrieved ‘Tonic Reflex’ ©. Retrieved 10/06/2014 10/06/2014 10/06/2014 https://www.youtube.com/watch? Babinski v=_JVINnp7NZ0 Moro ‘Moro Reflex’ tawamie. Wikimedia Commons Image, Creative ‘Babinski Reflex’ Automatt ©. Flickr. Retrieved 10/06/2014 Commons License. Retrieved 10/06/2014  9 The Infant: Locomotor Development Motor skills: voluntary movements of the body or parts of the body Gross (movement of large muscles of arms, legs, and torso) Fine (movement of small muscles such as fingers, toes) Walking (locomotion) a major milestone  10 Milestones of Motor Development ‘Milestones of Motor Development’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  11 The Infant: Motor Skills as Dynamic Action Systems Rhythmic stereotypies Not reflexes Stereotypic repetitive motions that appear in the absence of a stimulus Transitional behaviours E.g., rocking, swaying, banging arms up and down Dynamic systems theory Use sensory feedback to modify motor behaviour in adaptive ways Biomechanical properties and the environment  12 The Infant: Health and Wellness Typical health issues of infancy Congenital malformations (e.g., heart defects, spina bifida, cleft palate, club foot) Low birth weight In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  13 Low Birth Weight Weighing less than 2.5kg; very low birth weight – less than 1.5kg Small-for-gestational age more problematic than preterm Maternal traits correlated with increased risk: maternal malnourishment, smoking, alcohol, drugs during pregnancy, teenage or low SES mothers Interventions include incubators, gentle stimulation and ‘kangaroo care’  14 The Child: Steady Growth From age 2-3 until puberty, children gain 5-7.5cms in height and 2-3kgs annually Growth is cephalocaudal and proximodistal Limbs lengthen Proportion of body fat decreases Skeleto-muscular system strengthens Permanent teeth emerge Brain develops  15 The Child: Motor Development Gross Motor Development Large muscle groups Centre of gravity moves downward, allowing for new motor skills to develop E.g., ball throwing, jumping, running Fine Motor Development Using eye-hand and small muscle coordination E.g., buttoning a shirt, drawing  16 The Child: Gross and Fine Motor Skills ‘Milestones in Motor Development During Early Childhood’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  17 The Child: Health and Wellness Accidents the leading cause of death during childhood Motor vehicle crashes leading cause of death during childhood Child factors: sex and temperament Parental factors: poverty, beliefs about preventability, stress Societal conditions play a role (international differences) Intentional injury or physical abuse also a serious problem  18 Deaths and Unintentional Injuries in Australia Overall, a low rate of death In 2021, 1009 infant deaths out of all deaths registered (171,469) in Australia, a rate of 3.3 per 1000 live births Most child deaths are of infants aged < 1 year (69% of all child deaths) and are related to perinatal and congenital factors However, after infancy period, injury deaths (e.g., transport accidents, drownings, assaults) emerge as leading cause of death for children During 2015–2017, injuries contributed to 563 deaths of children aged 0– 14 – a rate of 4.1 per 100,000 children  19 Injury Deaths, Children Aged 0 – 14 Years 1999 - 2003 Australian Bureau of Statistics. 4102.0 Australian Social Trends, 2005. Retrieved 12/06/2014 from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/1d72f5e5299decc5ca25703b0080ccbf!OpenDocument  20 The Child: Overweight and Obesity Obesity: being at or above 95th percentile for individuals of same height, age, sex ‘Prevalence of overweight and obesity in Australian children aged 7-15 years, 1985-2007’. In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher. Challenges: physical health, emotional problems  21 The Child: Overweight and Obesity Principal contributors: Eating habits High caloric-density food Supersized portions Eating out Working parents Advertising Activity levels ‘Contributing factors’ ©. Creative Commons License, Retrieved 01/04/16 Sedentary lifestyle (TV, computers, transport) Inadequate safe areas for physical activity  22 The Adolescent: Growth Spurt Girls’ peak rates of growth For height: ~12 years For weight: 12.5 years Boys’ peak rates of growth For height: 13.4 years For weight: 13.9 years Girls achieve adult height around 16; boys continue to grow until 18–20  23 The Adolescent: Sexual Maturation Puberty: series of physical changes culminating in completion of sexual development resulting in sexual maturity Primary sex characteristics Development of sex organs Secondary sex characteristics External/physiological changes/signs of sexual maturation Release of gonadotrophin stimulating: Male testes to increase testosterone Female ovaries to increase oestrogen Both sexes produce both hormones but to different levels  24 The Adolescent: Sexual Maturation Largely genetically determined Environmental factors include: Nutrition Underweight delays and obesity accelerates puberty  25 The Adolescent: Early vs. Late Development: Males Early development for boys Positive: judged to be socially competent, attractive, self-assured, greater social acceptance Negative: increased risk of substance use, depression, problem behaviours such as bullying Late development for boys Positive: less likely to use alcohol Negative: more anxious, lower achievement test scores Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  26 The Adolescent: Early vs. Late Development: Females Early development for girls more negative than for boys Higher levels of body dissatisfaction Socialisation with older peer group Higher levels of depression reported Late development for girls Positive: good school performance Negative: anxiety  27 The Adolescent: Health and Wellness Risky behaviour Drug use and abuse Smoking Addiction Addictive Short- and long-term health threats Prevention Alcohol Binge drinking Interpersonal violence Health and social problems  28 The Adolescent: Health and Wellness Obesity 25% Australian adolescents are overweight or obese Rate of obesity doubled between 1985 and 1995 Associated health risks High BP, respiratory disease, orthopaedic disorders, diabetes Psychosocial consequences Causes complex Combination of genetics and environment  29 The Adult: Appearance and Physical Functioning Only minor changes in physical appearance during 20s and 30s Signs of ageing noticeable by 40s As people move into their 60s and beyond, they typically lose weight by losing muscle and bone Gradual decline in the efficiency of most bodily systems Primary and secondary ageing  30 The Adult: Psychological Implications Ageing and ageism Treatment, stereotyping, discrimination Majority of people > 65 say they are in excellent, very good, or good health Changing brain Cognitive changes (e.g., intelligence) Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease  31 The Adult: The Ageing Brain Neuronal loss and growth Axon sprouting, dendrite branching, synaptogenesis, neurofibrillary tangles, granulovacuolar degeneration Pseudodementia: mimic symptoms of dementia Brain syndromes: Acute: caused by e.g., diabetes, liver failure Chronic: e.g., multi-infarct dementia and Alzheimer’s disease  32 The Adult: Multi-infarct Dementia Caused by vascular disease \AKA vascular dementia Risk factors include hypertension, diabetes mellitus, advanced age, being male and smoking Blockage of oxygen to brain causes tiny strokes Sudden rather than gradual onset May have periods of lucidity  33 The Adult: Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) 50-70% of organic brain syndrome patients over 65 have AD Degeneration of brain cells affecting memory, learning, and judgement Symptoms worsen with disease progression Care in controlled environment Causes and cures not understood In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  34 The Adult: Symptoms of AD Memory impairment Deterioration of language Deficits in visual and spatial processing Repeating of questions Everyday tasks unfinished or forgotten Personality change (rigidity, egocentricity) Irritability or anxiety Lack of concentration  35 The Adult: Risk Factors for AD Chronological age Gender Vascular conditions (e.g., high BP) Low education Head injury Biological susceptibility  36 The Adult: Female Menopause Age of onset impacted by environmental and biological factors End of reproductive phase of life Physical changes ERT, HRT – pros and cons Post-menopause: Hormone levels stabilise and menopausal signs subside  37 The Adult: Male Andropause Characterised by decreasing levels of testosterone Low libido Fatigue and lack of energy Memory problems Fewer psychological effects than women  38 The Adult: Disease, Disuse, or Abuse? Explaining declines of physical functioning Ageing in the absence of disease has little impact Osteoporosis and osteoarthritis Disuse contributes to steeper declines in physical functioning in some adults Abuse (alcohol, diet, smoking) contributes to declines in functioning Exercise and activity benefits  39 The Adult: Health and Wellness Osteoporosis (‘porous bone’) – loss of minerals Results in fragile, easily fractured bones Nearly ⅓ of elderly adults who fracture a hip die within one year Hip fractures a leading cause of nursing home admissions Osteoporosis can be prevented  40 The Adult: Health and Wellness Osteoarthritis The most common joint problem among older adults Results from gradual deterioration of the cartilage that cushions the bones from rubbing together Joint disease is deforming, painful, and limits activities  41 The Adult: Improving Health Behaviours ‘Behaviours that Improve Adult Health and Longevity’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  1 PSYC213 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dr Natasha Loi Lecture 5 Cognitive development (Chapter 5; pp. 208-214; 216-246) ‘Baby Online’ ©. Retrieved 10/06/2014  2 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of the University of New England pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under (the Act). Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice.  3 Learning Objectives To understand: 1. Cognitive growth according to Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory 2. The key features of Vygotsky’s sociocultural perspective on cognitive development 3. Fischer’s dynamic skill theory and compare with Piaget and Vygotsky 4. Major cognitive developmental achievements across the lifespan  4 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory ‘Piaget's four cognitive development stages; sensorimotor (birth-2 years), preoperational (2 - 7 years), concrete operational (7 - 11 years), and formal operational (adolescence - adulthood)’ Tiffany Davis, Meghann Hummel, and Kay Sauers (2006) ©. Retrieved 10/06/2014  5 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory Infants as active agents Through exploration, the brain responds by creating schemes Knowledge is created using inborn functions Organisation Adaptation and assimilation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xj0CUeyucJw Cognitive conflict Stimulates cognitive growth Motivated to reduce conflict through equilibration  6 Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  7 Piaget: Contributions Stimulated and continues to guide research Showed that: Infants are active in their own development Infants/children think differently at each stage of development Cognitive development sequence was basically correct  8 Piaget: Criticisms 1. Underestimates cognitive abilities of young minds May confuse a lack of motor skills with cognitive limitations 2. Wrongly claimed that broad stages of development exist 3. Failed to adequately explain development 4. Limited attention given to social influences (e.g., society, culture)  9 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Culture and society are pivotal Knowledge depends on social experiences Development varies from society to society Children acquire mental tools though interaction Zone of proximal development Guided participation Scaffolding https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=InzmZtHuZPY ‘Zone of Proximal Development’. Wikimedia Commons. Retrieved 26/04/21  10 Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Mental activity is mediated by tools Spoken language, writing, memory strategies Criticised for: Placing too much emphasis on social interaction Not placing enough emphasis on individual construction of knowledge  11 Comparing Vygotsky and Piaget In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  12 Fischer’s Dynamic Skill Theory Continuity and variability in human performance and cognition is a function of skills development Interaction between individual and context Includes zone of proximal development Developmental range Four tiers: Reflexive Sensorimotor action Representations Abstractions ‘Fischer’s Skill Theory’. Retrieved 26/04/21  13 Fischer’s Dynamic Skill Theory Reflexive: basic reflexes; an involuntary physiological reaction such as sneezing or blinking Sensorimotor actions: controlled actions on observed objects, Representations: giving symbolic meaning to concrete objects, events, people, or places Abstractions: considering something as a general quality or characteristic apart from their concrete realities, specific objects, or actual instances  14 The Infant: Piaget’s Stages of Infant Cognition In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  15 The Infant: Circular Reactions  16 The Infant: Development of Object Permanence Belief an object remains the same despite changes in the sensations it sends to the eye Awareness that things continue to exist even when not visible From 4-8mths: “out of sight, out of mind” By 8-12mths: make A-not-B error By 18mths: object permanence mastered ‘Object Permanence’. In Psychology 10th Edition, By D.G. Myers. Worth Publishers. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  17 The Infant: Development of Object Permanence ‘Evidence of Object Permanence in Infants’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  18 The Infant: Emergence of Symbols Symbolic capacity Ability to use images, words, gestures to represent objects and experiences Language acquisition Babbling (6-10mths): repeat consonant sounds – “ma-ma-ma”, “da-da- da” Parental influence: infant-directed speech – “parentese” E.g., Golinkoff et al. (2015) By 24mths, children are deliberate thinkers who can solve problems in their heads ‘Cute Baby Girl on Phone’. Retrieved 10/06/2014  19 The Child Symbolic capacity greatest cognitive strength of pre-schooler Can refer to past and future Pretend or fantasy play flourishes Focus on perceptual salience Understand constancies and object permanence Start to internalise functional relationships Lack of conservation Egocentrism Classification  20 The Child: Conservation Something remains the same even if its appearance is altered Matter/mass Liquid Length Number Area ‘’Concrete Operations’. Retrieved 26/04/21 Volume  21 The Child: Conservation Task ‘Some Common Tests of the Child’s Ability to Conserve’. In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  22 The Child: Why Can’t Preoperational Children Conserve? Centration: focus on one aspect and neglect others (e.g., height of liquid not volume) Irreversibility: Failure to see that an action can go in two or more ways; cannot mentally reverse a set of steps Focus on successive states: tendency to focus on the end state rather than the transformation from one state to another  23 The Child: Egocentrism Egocentrism: Confusing one’s own perspective with that of another’s Not being able to take another’s view/perspective Believing the universe centres around the self Piaget’s Three Mountain Task Child is unable to describe mountains from In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher. doll’s point of view  24 The Child: Classification Classification skills: limited to basic level categories and incapable of taxonomic categorisation In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  25 School-Aged Children: Logical Thinking In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  26 The Adolescent: Formal Thought Emergence of abstract and systematic thinking Hypothetico-deductive reasoning Transition takes place gradually Intuitive and scientific reasoning can co-exist Depends on exposure to education Pendulum task ‘The Pendulum Problem’. In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  27 The Adolescent: Formal Thought Contributes to adolescent development Sense of identity, complex thinking, humour Confusion and idealism/rebellion Difficulty differentiating own thoughts and feelings May affect relationships with parents  28 Adolescent Egocentrism Personal fable: belief adolescent’s life embodies a special story that is heroic/unique; no-one else understands them Imaginary audience: a group of followers exist who constantly watch and judge their every move Related to development of self-concept Increased skills in perspective taking Inconsistencies of self – differences between “true” and “false” selves  29 The Adult Limitations in adult cognitive performance Half of all university students show consistent mastery of formal operations (see figure) Culture-dependent In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  30 The Adult: Beyond Formal Thought Post-formal thought Relativistic thinking Knowledge is relative, non-absolute Accept and synthesise contradictions Dialectical thinking Search for truth through analysing relations between systems  31 The Adult: Ageing and Cognitive Skills Cross-sectional studies show poorer cognitive performance by elderly individuals, BUT: Cohort effect Training can reactivate cognitive abilities; cognitive plasticity Modes of cognition Relevance of tasks  1 PSYC213 LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY Dr Natasha Loi Lecture 6 Intelligence and creativity (Chapter 7; pp. 310-351) Language, literacy, and learning (Chapter 8; pp. 360-384) In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  2 COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA Copyright Regulations 1969 WARNING This material has been copied and communicated to you by or on behalf of the University of New England pursuant to Part VB of the Copyright Act 1968 (the Act). The material in this communication may be subject to copyright under (the Act). Any further copying or communication of this material by you may be the subject of copyright protection under the Act. Do not remove this notice.  3 Learning Objectives: Chapter 7 To understand: 1. Traditional and more recent theoretical perspectives about what intelligence is and how it can be measured 2. What creativity is and how it is measured 3. The factors that influence scores on IQ and creativity tests 4. The relationship between intelligence test scores and school achievement and health 5. The factors associated with the development of wisdom 6. Intellectual disability and giftedness  4 Defining and Measuring Intelligence and Creativity Psychometric approaches: Spearman two-factor theory: General mental ability (g) Special abilities (s) Cattell and Horn: Fluid intelligence: processing new information and reasoning ability Crystallised intelligence: learned processes, stored responses  5 Defining Intelligence and Creativity Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale IQ = mental age (MA) ÷ chronological age (CA) IQ of 100 average intelligence Wechsler’s intelligence tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale; WAIS-IV Verbal and performance IQ scores  6 Defining Intelligence and Creativity In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  7 Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences ‘Multiple Intelligence‘ © Retrieved 04/05/17  8 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  9 Creativity Ability to produce novel responses appropriate in context and valued by others Involves divergent thinking Originality or uniqueness of the generated ideas Ideational fluency often used to assess creativity Idea_Bulb_animated’ Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain License, Retrieved 19/04/16  10 Factors Influencing Intelligence and Creativity Flynn Effect Changing IQ scores over successive generations Genes and environment Education Society Health In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  11 Cognitive Changes from 1932 to 1997: The Flynn Effect In Life Span Development: Australia and New Zealand, By J.W. Santrock. McGraw-Hill Education (Australia). Reproduced with permission from publisher.  12 The Infant: Developmental Quotients Bayley Scales of Infant Development Used with infants 1mth to 3.5yrs Measures motor skills (fine and gross) and mental ability (memory, senses, perception, etc.) Behaviour rating scale Developmental quotient (DQ) rather than IQ DQs do not predict later IQs  13 The Child Stability of IQ Generally, children’s standings in comparison with peers stays stable from 4yrs up Changes in IQ scores related to environment (Figure 7.10) Emergence of creativity ‘IQ (intelligence quotient) sponge text on child hands’. Retrieved 29/04/21 Fostering creativity  14 The Adolescent Formal operations: improved memory and information-processing skills; better performance on IQ tests IQ scores more stable and predict IQ in middle age IQ scores good predictor of school achievement Intelligence does not “cause” achievement Relationship between IQ scores and achievement imperfect IQ scores have limited “shelf life” Development of creativity not as predictable as IQ  15 The Adult: Changes in IQ with Age In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  16 Schaie and Cognitive Changes ‘Changes in Cognitive Abilities with Age’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  17 The Adult: Potential for Wisdom Wisdom: combination of expert knowledge and pragmatic ability. Life experience + age = wisdom? Wisdom rare and not predicted by age Life experience contributes to wisdom Combination of intelligence, personality, cognitive style Social environment positively associated with wisdom  18 Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectual Disability In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  19 Extremes of Intelligence: Intellectual Disability ~4% of children classified with intellectual disability (AIHW, 2015) Milder cases may be diagnosed when toddlers fail to meet developmental milestones Organic conditions Biological causes associated with hereditary factors, diseases, injuries (i.e., genetic disorder or brain damage) Prenatal risk factors (e.g., maternal alcohol use) No identifiable organic cause Combination of genetic and environmental factors (i.e., no evidence of organic brain damage) Disadvantaged families  20 Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness High IQ > 130, or Special abilities/talents in areas valued by society Characterised by: Advanced language skills Curiosity and motivation to learn Rapid learning and long attention span Preference for older companions In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  21 Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness Terman (1954): longitudinal study of gifted children Learned to walk and talk sooner than other toddlers Reached puberty earlier than average Rated by their teachers as better adjusted Low rates of maladjustment in adulthood Aged well, worked longer, and were active and engaged  22 Integrating Cognitive Perspectives In Life Span Human Development Fourth Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  23 Learning Objectives: Chapter 8 To understand: 1. The basic components and functions of language 2. How nature and nurture contribute to language development 3. The path of language development across the lifespan 4. How and why achievement motivation changes from infancy onwards  24 Language: Basic Components Words and rules must be mastered Phonemes: sounds that combine with other sounds to form words Morphemes: can be a word, ‘pig’ or part of a word, ‘(pig)sty’ Syntax: order of morphemes Semantics: purposes and meanings of a language Pragmatics: how language is used in context Prosody: tune and rhythm of speech  25 Explaining Language: Nativist Perspective Chomsky (1959, 1994, 2000) Humans have a unique genetic capacity Universal grammar Language skills hard-wired at birth through innate Language acquisition device (LAD) ‘The Language Acquisition Device’. In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  26 Explaining Language: Nativist Perspective Chomsky: Support from the development of signing in deaf children and Berko’s (1958) ‘wug test’ Poverty of the stimulus Limitations in the role of the environment and failure to account for semantics and pragmatics Synthesis of innate capacity and behaviourist principles most likely explanation  27 Explaining Language: Learning Theory Learning Theory: Skinner (1957) Behaviourist view Contingent reinforcement for effective communication Parents reward correct speech by responding positively Shaping More recent research Limited evidence for simple reinforcement  28 Explaining Language: Social Learning Interactionists emphasise importance of nature and nurture Biology and language environment interact Parents central in providing scaffolding for emerging language (Bruner, 1983) Parents tend to use child-directed speech and techniques of recasting and expansion Scaffolding developed and staggered to reflect complexity of language development Imitation and linguistic play also key Early Learning’ ©. Retrieved 12/06/2014  29 The Infant: Before the First Words Newborns attuned to human speech and prefer speech sounds Infants produce sounds (e.g., crying, cooing, babbling) Exercise vocal cords Learn how airflow and tongue/mouth affect sounds Important social cue is joint attention Imitation Syntactic bootstrapping: use of contextual cues Unfamiliar words learnt through grammatical context in which they are found  30 The Infant: The First Words Holophrases Vocabulary acquisition one word at a time Vocabulary spurt Overextension vs. underextension In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  31 Infants are Born to Talk Newborns can recognise sound of mother’s voice at birth What aspects of language are built into our brain through genetics and which are learned by listening in the womb? Researchers examining 12 pre-term infants found that the neural connections used in adult language processing are present early in ‘Infants are Born to Talk’ ©. Scientific American. development – supports hypothesis that we are Retrieved 10/06/2014 hardwired to understand some aspects of speech  32 The Infant: Telegraphic Speech Telegraphic speech (~18-24mths) 2-3 essential words expressing an idea Emphasise semantic relationships Competence in syntax gradually increases Overregularisation Children must learn rules for creating variations of basic declarative sentences ‘Semantic Relations in Two-Word Utterances’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  33 The Infant: Play Saracho and Spodek (1998): define play as Intrinsically, not extrinsically, motivated Process-, not product-oriented Creative and non-literal Having implicit rules Spontaneous and self-initiated Free from major emotional distress In Life Span Human Development Second Australian and New Zealand Edition, By C.K. Sigelman et al. Cengage Learning Australia. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  34 The Infant: Play Parten (1932): social dimensions of play ‘Parten’s Categories of Play’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  35 The Infant: Play Grusec and Lytton: cognitive typology ‘Types of Play Based on Grusec and Lytton’s Typology’. In Lifespan Development: A Chronological Approach 2nd Australasian Edition, By M. Hoffnung et al. John Wiley and Sons Australia, Ltd. Reproduced with permission from publisher.  36 The Child: Expanding Language Skills Pronunciation improves and sentences become longer and more complex Average child starts school with a vocabulary of about 10,000 words In adolescence, metalinguistic awareness increases Syntax Pragmatics  37 The Child: Learning to Read Emergent literacy Early experiences influencing literacy development Alphabetic principle 1. Pre-alphabetic 3. Full alphabetic 2. Partial alphabetic 4. Consolidated alphabetic Factors that influence emergent literacy Asking questions to deepen understanding Engaging in rhyming stories and games Providing definitions and assigning meaning to printed symbols  38 The Child: Learning to Read How should children be taught to read? Whole language approach vs. phonics approach Cognitive processes involved in being able to read printed word: 1. Being aware of sound units in words 2. Decoding words 3. Accessing word meaning  39 The Child: Achievement Motivation Dweck: Fixed vs. growth mindset ‘Fixed vs. Growth Mindset’. Retrieved from https://sites.google.com/a/sd25.org/alf- patton/blog/fixedvsgrowthmindset 18/04/2016  40 The Child: Achievement Motivation High achievers have mastery orientation Attribute success to internal and stable causes Attribute failures to external factors beyond their control or internal causes they can overcome Focus on learning new things Low achievers have helpless orientation Attribute success to external causes, e.g., luck, easiness of the task Attribute failure to internal, stable cause of lack of ability Focus on proving ability rather than improving ability  41 The Child: Achievement Motivation Child’s characteristics Developmental level and intelligence Mastery vs. performance goals Parent’s contribution Support independence and high standards Involvement with child’s education Cognitively stimulating home environment School’s contribution Educational practices and school climate