P&SP Week 9 2024 Student Notes PDF

Identifier first line Second line Personality & Social Psychology Week 9 Intragroup Processes Said Shafa  General overview influenc Individu Social  Lecture 9: Intragroup processes e...

Identifier first line Second line Personality & Social Psychology Week 9 Intragroup Processes Said Shafa  General overview influenc Individu Social  Lecture 9: Intragroup processes e al Group  Brief revision of my social psychology content #21749 15 2 Intragroup processes  Overview and objectives  What is a group? (continued)  Group formation and socialisation  Effects of group on individual behaviour  Leadership 4 What is a group?  Group  Social group: Definition: two or more people who share some common characteristic (or goal) that is socially meaningful to themselves or for others  Each of us belongs to a number of different groups Groups differ in many aspects: size, composition, homogeneity, rate of interaction, etc. Interdependence: the extent to which each group member’s thoughts, feelings and actions impact the others’ – Task interdependence: Reliant on each other for mastery of material goals through performance of collective tasks – Social interdependence: Reliant on each other for feelings of connectedness, respect, and acceptance 6  Types of groups  Primary or intimacy groups Family, circle of close friends Most concern for social interdependence – But can solve problems and tasks together  Secondary or task groups Work teams, committees Most concern for task interdependence – But social interdependence can influence performance 7 Group formation and socialisation  Group formation process  Typical (not invariable) stages of efforts to coordinate task and social interdependence  Tuckman (1965) Forming Storming Norming Storming Norming Performing Adjourning Formin Performin g g Adjournin g 9  Forming Individuals come together to form a group Unclarity: members try to understand the nature of interdependence, group structure (e.g., hierarchy) and group’s goals Often facilitated by group organiser who can articulate the above 10  Storming  Once nominally formed, negotiation occurs around roles and responsibilities  This can involve conflict (‘storm’) Task conflict – different views on content, structure and goals Relationship conflict – clashing personalities Process conflict – different views on strategies and tactics  Conflict can impact later performance and commitment (de Wit et al., 2012) Relationship and process conflict decrease performance 11  Norming  Once (if) conflict decreases, group norms emerge Norm: general tendencies of expected behaviour within groups  This stage is characterized by consensus, harmony, stability, commitment and cohesion and the development of a group- related social identity Disagreements are resolved through consensual norms Members develop sense of trust and liking Commitment to group increases 12  Performing  Members cooperate to solve problems, make decisions, or produce outputs Exchange of information Productive resolution of disagreements Continued high commitment to group goals 13  Adjourning  Dissolution of group Group has fulfilled purpose or was set to end at a particular time Often marked by period of evaluating work, sharing feelings about group Dissolution of group can be stressful if commitment made it important identity for members 14 performance Development and performance Team 15  Group socialization: joining pre-existing groups  What if the group already exists?  Group socialisation: cognitive, affective and behavioural changes that occur as individuals join and leave groups  Moreland and Levine (1988) Mutual processes – Investigation: potential member seeks information about group; group seeks information about potential member – Socialization: group tries to mold the individual into one of them – a ‘team player’; member acquires and internalizes group knowledge, adopts norms, becomes committed, forms identity – Maintenance: now a fully committed member, the individual takes on a specific role within the group 16  Social exclusion and ostracism  Social exclusion: being denied the opportunity to join and engage in a group.  Ostracism: being excluded and ignored.  Obstruct fundamental need for connectedness  Have been linked to a range of detrimental psychological and behavioural outcomes such as increased anxiety, depression and aggression (e.g., Twenge, 2000). 17  Ostracism research  Cyberball procedure (Williams, Cheung, & Choi 2000) – PPs join a three-person Cyberball game – Initially PPS receive ball equally – Ostracism manipulation: Other two players stop throwing the ball to PPs.  O-Cam (Goodacre & Zadro, 2010) – PPs join three-person web-conference. – Conversation initially includes PPs – Ostracism manipulation: other two ignore PPs in further conversation.  Future-Life (Twenge et al., 2001) – PPs complete personality survey. 18 – Ostracism manipulation: bogus feedback predicts future life devoid of meaningful 19  Response to ostracism Self-reported distress (e.g., Williams & Zadro 2005) Decreased self-esteem, mood, belonging, meaningful life, numbness Behaviour (e.g., Baumeister at al., 2000; Twenge 2005) Decreased cognitive performance, pain insensitivity, increased aggression but also more cooperation. Neurological activation in line with physical pain (Eisenberg et al., 2003) 20 ACC: conflict monitoring and pain  Key take-aways  Group: people who share meaningful characteristic or goal – Primary or intimacy groups: social interdependence – Secondary or task groups: task interdependence  Forming new groups: Forming > Storming > Norming > Performing > Adjourning  Joining existing groups (socialisation): Investigation > Socialisation > Maintenance  Forced exit: Ostracism has profound psychological effects 21 See (Williams, 2007) in Annual Review of Psychology for a very Effects of the group on the individual  Effects of the group on the individual  Social facilitation influenc Individu Social e al Group  Social loafing  Deindividuation 23  Social facilitation  Social facilitation: increase in the likelihood of highly accessible responses (and decrease in likelihood of less accessible responses), due to the presence of others  Triplett (1898) Presence of other improved task performance  Does the presence of others always help? Can it hurt performance? 24  It depends on the task  Markus (1978) Familiar task: putting on and taking off one’s own shoes Unfamiliar task: dressing and undressing in new, unfamiliar items of clothing Alone vs. mere presence (present) vs. attentive audience (watched) How quickly is task performed? Mere presence and being watched improves performance of familiar actions, but impairs performance of unfamiliar actions 25  Arousal and facilitation of the ‘dominant response’  The presence of others can increase arousal Evaluation apprehension Distraction  Increased arousal can lead to better performance for well- rehearsed, accessible responses (‘dominant responses’), but worse performance novel, complex, inaccessible responses 26 (‘nondominant  Social facilitation in real life  Athletes/actors/musician performing in front of an audience.  Driver’s exam  Completing tasks in presence of others 27  Social Loafing  Social loafing: tendency to exert less effort on a task when done in a group than when alone 28  Social loafing  Latane, Williams and Harkins (1979) Clap or cheer as loudly as possible Alone or in a group Sound pressure per person reduced as a function of group size. 29  Reducing social loafing  Reducing loafing Change nature of the task – Interesting, involving tasks show less loafing Increase accountability Reduce group size Increase commitment to or identification with group – Cross cultural differences – Social loafing occurs to lesser extent in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures 30  Social Loafing and culture  Reducing loafing Change nature of the task – Interesting, involving tasks show less loafing Increase accountability Reduce group size Increase commitment to or identification with group – Cross cultural differences – Social loafing occurs to lesser extent in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic (Earley, 1989) cultures 31  De-individuation: acting like a group member  De-individuation: psychological state in which group or social identity completely dominates personal or individual identity so that group norms become maximally salient One acts as a prototypical group member (not an individual)  Caused by anonymity, wearing uniforms, being in a crowd of group members By being just one among many similar others  Increases accessibility of group norms Decreases accessibility of personal standards Can produce negative or positive behavior 32  Acting on the basis of accessible group norms  Johnson & Downing (1979): Manipulated norms (positive/ negative) and anonymity Manipulation 1: Dressed either as KKK (negative norms) or nurses (positive norms) Manipulation 2: Outfit either did or did not cover face Asked to deliver shocks to random person in a learning task 33  Acting on the basis of accessible group norms Norm consistent behaviour: PPs in “KKK” condition delivered more shocks than PPs in “nurse” condition. De-individuation (anonymity) exacerbated the effects of group norms on behaviour: anonymous “nurses” 34 exceedingly less  Key take-aways  Social facilitation: Increased arousal Better performance for simple or well-rehearsed tasks Worse performance for novel or complex tasks  Social loafing: decreased individual effort resulting from group performance – Can be mitigated through task (motivation, accountability) and group characteristics (group size, cohesion). – Dependent on cultural context  Deindividuation: Increased accessibility of group norms 35 override personal choice  Other processes and phenomena  See MBB1… Group polarization Conformity (Asch) Obedience (Milgram) Minority influence (Moscovici) … 36 37 Leadership Leadership matters 39 Leadership matters December 2020 New Zealand 25 Deaths 5 DPM December 2020 USA 348.653 Deaths 1020 DPM 40  What is leadership?  Leadership – A process in which one or more group members are permitted to influence and motivate others to help attain group goals.  Leadership theories – Theories about what who become leaders and what makes leaders effective 41  Trait theories of leadership  People who are prototypical of a leader Assertiveness Dominant body posture (length!) Frequent speech Gender  People who are prototypical of the group (Hais et al., 1997) Share characteristics with the group stereotype Especially among high identifiers 42  Very little empirical support for  Behavioural theories of leadership  Leadership behaviour: Task direction: In pursuit of Mastery goals, leaders direct followers’ effort and performance toward group goals. – Setting targets, providing instructions, assigning roles, rewarding or punishing performance. Consideration: In pursuit of Connectedness goals, leaders foster affiliation and support. – Listening, supporting, 43 motivating, including, and creating a safe atmosphere  Contemporary leadership theories  Transformational leadership Inspiration, vision (charisma) Group dedication and optimism Moral character Well-being and morale 44 45  Contingency theories of leadership  Effective leadership is situation specific E.g., Homan & Greer (2013)  When leaders showed low consideration behaviour, there was no difference in team performance between homogenous and heterogenous groups.  When leaders showed high consideration behaviour, heterogenous groups had 46 better performance than  Key take aways  Leaders are enabled by group to lead them to shared goals.  Leaders can make or break group performance  Little empirical support for trait leadership theories  Moderate empirical support for behavioral leadership theories  Strongest evidence for contingency approaches to leadership: adapting leadership style to contextual needs such as group and task at hand. 47  Overview and objectives  What is a group? (continued)  Group formation and socialisation  Effects of group on individual behaviour  Leadership 48 Brief revision 49  Lecture 1b. Intro to social psychology Social psychology: the scientific study of the effects of social and cognitive processes on the way people perceive, influence and relate to others  Lecture 7a. The self Defining the self Social Sources of self- feedback concept Valuing me Downward and mine compariso Social compariso n n SELF Self- Belongi Self- concept ng presentati Introspecti Self- on on esteem Mastery Upward Self compariso perceptio n n 51 Working self- concept  Lecture 7b. Perceiving others Accessible Deeper Integratio information First processin Covariation n Global impression g Consensus impressio Salient s ns cues Distinctivene I-E attribution ss / Consistency Corresponde nt inferences (bias) 52  perceptio Individu n Social al Group Lecture 8. Intergroup processes Individual Outgrou as group p member Stereotype Content Model (SCM) Intergroup Differentiation (Out)group Homogeneity Minimal group paradigm Social Identity Theory (SIT) Contact Competition Re-categorization Threat De-categorization 53 Superordinate  influenc Individu e Social al Group Lecture 9. Intragroup processes 54  What’s next  No teaching next week!  Lectures Week 10-12 Simon Laham  Lab-report Feedback Week 10 For timely submitted assessments  Tutorial Week 11 Debate: Nudging Conclusion of tutorial stream  Exam consultation session in Week 11 55 Enjoy the break!