PS 5 Lecture Notes PDF

Chapter One: How to Become a Centenarian 9/30: Common belief in calories in = calories out; this is not correct, may work for carbohydrate consumption, but fats and proteins are completely different. We want to focus not on chronological age, but physiological age, as this de...

Chapter One: How to Become a Centenarian 9/30: Common belief in calories in = calories out; this is not correct, may work for carbohydrate consumption, but fats and proteins are completely different. We want to focus not on chronological age, but physiological age, as this determines health. Modern diseases are not the result of aging, but are lifestyle diseases Average lifespan in the US is mid to late 70s. A blood test says a lot about the health of an individual, through looking at markers. Although awareness is increasing, diseases are still increasing. CVD still the #1 cause of death (almost 700,000 a year!) Obesity Obesity= excessive accumulation of body fat. Obesity is NOT a disease, but a marker for disease. Risk factor for lifestyle diseases. How to define obesity: Waist circumference, body fat percentage, BMI, DEXA (visceral vs. subcutaneous fat; visceral is correlated with health problems) Excess fat= Ectopic fat (Fat located in abnormal places in the body) - Men tend to gain weight in the stomach, for women it tends to start in the thighs. Female=obese if waist circumference is greater than 88cm/ 35in. Men= obese is greater than 102cm/40in. WC= weight circumference, WC is better indicator of health than BMI In the US, 35.9% of pop. has normal BMI, 36% are overweight, 27% are obese -Obesity is not about appearance, but a marker for diseases. ⅔ of the pop. are at risk or already have lifestyle diseases. According to the BRFSS, obesity has increased GREATLY in the past 30 years. Why? Body Fat/ BMI Fat does not conduct electricity, bf scales send current through the body and see how much of the current bounces back. - Females always have higher bf%, obese= >30% - Males: >25% - Disadvantages of bf% scale: If hydrated, bf will seem lower, if dehydrated it will measure higher.  - BMI= weight (kg)/ height (m^2): 18.5-24.9= healthy, 25-29.9= overweight, 30 or higher= obese. Disadvantages: doesn’t measure bf, not ideal for body builders. - Bmi in children is measured in percentiles: BMI in 85th-95th percentiles= at risk of overweight, >95th= overweight. DEXA Dual X-ray absorptiometry, scans the entire body and is the most accurate way to measure body composition. Tells not only fat percentage, but also fat distribution. 10/2 Diet and Exercise Diet is much more important than exercise in terms of effects on the body. The quality of the calories is incredibly important, not just the quantity. Food vs. Nutrition Food= what we ingest Nutrition= the science of food, how it is digested. Digestion= breaking down the large molecules into small ones. Food that is digested quickly will make us hungry again quicker. We eat for energy, food=fuel. We need energy in every single cell in our body. Absorption= the movement of the food from the small intestine into the bloodstream, can then travel through the body. Quick digestion= quick absorption, and vice versa. The science of food isn’t something that started being taken seriously until the 80s. Metabolism: what we do with the food / how it is processed. Nutrition= the science of digestion, absorption, metabolism, and how food is stored. Energy usage is 24/7. The question is how much are you storing and where are you storing it? We store food in 3 places: The liver (limited capacity), muscles (limited capacity when it comes to usage, are activity-dependent), and adipose tissue (fat cells). Ectopic= fat that is somewhere it doesn’t belong. Two factors that affect food choices: Price and taste. Friends/communities tend to have the same health habits. Why is Nutrition Important? Think of food we consume like information  Diseases partially affected by nutrition: Osteoporosis (bone-thinning due to lack of calcium; we get bone calcium from vitamin D). Diseases highly affected by nutrition: Heart diseases, diabetes, hypertension, lifestyle diseases in general. Vitamins: important for metabolism, deficiency or toxicity. Pellagra is a disease caused by niacin deficiency (vitamin b3). B3 comes from a lot of animal products, rice, bananas, nuts, etc. Healthy People 2030 is a set of objectives that the medical community sets as goals for the next ten years (ex.: decrease added sugar intake). Includes strategies and encouragement. Unfortunately not working. Vegetables and fruits have a lot of vitamins and minerals and help w/ satiety. Lab notes Body weight= total body mass - Units= pounds (lbs) or kilograms (kg) - Conversion between lbs and kg: weight (lbs) x 0.45= weight (kg) Body Composition= bf %; definition: proportion of fat to lean mass in the body as a percentage. Gives a general idea of excess fat. - The “healthy” body composition for the general pop. ranges from 15% to 25%. Bio impedance analysis (BIA): Electrical impulses travel differently through fat versus lean components, assess bf %. Waist circumference: Measurement around waist, above hip bone. Subcutaneous vs. visceral fat. Units: Inches - Subcutaneous fat: distributed over the body under the skin. - Visceral fat: More internalized, ex: abdominal fat. Highly correlated with metabolic syndrome. Blood Pressure: Def: Pressure exerted on blood vessels as blood flows through. Units= mm Hg. - Hypertension (high) v. Hypotension (low) - Measure of how hard the heart has to work to pump blood throughout the body. - Hypertension: 140/90mmHg and up - Hypotension: 90/60mmHg and below - Normal: 120/80mmHg - Systolic Pressure vs. Diastolic Pressure: systole= heart (ventricles) contracted (maximum pressure in the blood vessel), diastole= heart (ventricles) relaxed. - Measures brachial artery bc directly leads to heart. 10/4 For the body, food is chemistry/ chemicals. The rest of factors are psychological, economic, etc. Macronutrients Chemicals are broken into main three macronutrients: Lipids, Protein, Carbohydrates. - We consume them in large categories and define them in grams. - The source of Calories Carbohydrates - The majority of carbohydrates come from a plant-based source, such as fruits and vegetables. Also in animal products, such as milk. - Carbohydrates are essential, the main function is as an energy source (fuel). Must be converted to ATP once it's in the body in order to be utilized. - 1g carbohydrates= 4 Calories. - Carbohydrates can be good or bad. There are many different types of carbohydrates. - Sugar is a type of carbohydrate. - The liver can convert protein or fat to carbohydrates. Lipids - Essential. There are really great lipids, but also some really horrible ones. - 1g lipids= 9 Calories. - Lipids have many functions: Fat under our skin keeps us warm, brain needs fat to insulate electrical activities, eyes need fat. - Calories from lipids are not necessarily going to energy, but some of the other functions. - Fats can come from plant or animal sources: Meat, eggs, cheese, oil. - There are certain lipids the body can’t make, so they must be acquired through diet (Such as omega 3). Proteins - Very limited natural foods that contain purely protein, the only one is egg whites, otherwise proteins always come mixed with fats and carbs. - There is no such thing as a bad protein, the only bad part is the things they’re mixed with (some carbs and fats).  - Protein tends to be the most expensive macronutrient. Vitamins - Not a source of energy, but important for metabolism. - Fat soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K. Water is insoluble, the body has the ability to store them. - Water soluble: Bs and C. Fat is insoluble, cannot be stored. - Vegans must take vitamin b12, because it’s only in large quantities in animal products. - Consuming vitamins in their natural form helps with absorption. Minerals - Sodium. High sodium can be bad for you depending on your personal health factors. - Potassium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iodine Water - Water is an inorganic essential nutrient. - Water is involved in many body processed: fluid balance, nerve impulses, body temperature, muscle contractions, nutrient transport, excretion of waste products. The rest of the chemicals coming from food are micronutrients. Vitamins and minerals. - Consumed in very small quantities, measured in milligrams. - Important for chemical reactions. Ex.: Metabolism. Water is in its own category. LECTURE NOTES 10/7/24 Food Pyramid: popularized in the 80s, supported by the belief that fat is bad. Encouraged consuming less eggs, butter, meat, etc. Food pyramid is based on grains and cereals, we now know that it’s sugar that is bad, not (necessarily) fat. Came up with the idea of “servings”, serving= quantity, not frequency. Didn’t take into account diet and exercise. MyPyramid (2005) - Oil was still the most marginalized group. - Included the idea of exercise. MyPlate (newest) Overview of cardiovascular diseases Cardiovascular diseases remain the #1 killer in the U.S. About 750k total deaths per year. Cancer is 2nd. Leading diseases in the early 1900s were microorganism/ acute diseases. Diseases Acute: acute illness has a clear cut beginning, middle, and an end. Amenable to one shot solution (ex.: medicine). - Examples of acute diseases: contamination of water (sol.= sanitation, polio= vaccination) - The discovery of antibiotics mostly got rid of acute diseases. Chronic: They begin early in life long before clinical symptoms appear. Early detection is needed. They are not cured, they are managed. - They manifest slowly, people often don’t know they have one until it’s bad. - Management of chronic diseases cost so much money, people are on medications their whole life for these diseases. - Affects society and drives the cost of healthcare. Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases Tobacco: major risk factor for heart disease because they contain carcinogens (harmful chemicals that don’t belong in the body). Carcinogens trigger the immune system to release chemicals to expel toxin (inflammation). Inflammation is the #1 risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Lipids: Trans fat (man-made fat used to stabilize products) and omega-6 fat. - Found in sweets, seed oils. Hypertension Physical Inactivity Diabetes: happens when the body is unable to efficiently manage sugar, leads to complications in the kidneys, heart, nerves, and eyes (can cause blindness). Obesity Diet: quality and quantity Alcohol: moderate alcohol consumption (possibly a carcinogen) Stress: stress is not just psychological, it’s hormonal. Causes hormonal imbalance (such as cortisol). Cortisol affects our appetite. High energy density vs. low energy density Sugar makes you hungry quickly Chapter 2: Exercise Any type of physical activity is beneficial. Muscles  Skeletal muscles: muscles that we use voluntarily. If you can move it consciously, it’s a skeletal muscle. Strength: how much force. Power: how fast force is produced. Endurance: how long (in terms of weightlifting, how many repetitions you can do). Flexibility: range of motion. Categories and Benefits of Exercise 1. Many repetitions, low force or strength. (Ex.: running) 2. Few repetitions, high force/ strength (ex.: weightlifting) Adaptation= the changes in the body in response to exercise. - Respiratory: better oxygen uptake. More efficient: less breaths, more oxygen. - Cardiovascular system (heart): main function is to pump blood, deliver blood to the cells to bring nutrients and oxygen to bring fuel. Assessed by heart rate. Physically active= heart works less, delivers more. - Endocrine system: organs that release hormones. Hormones are important for efficient metabolism and for the storage of nutrients. - Nervous system: affects movement and absorption of the digestive system. Exercise is stress. Stress= something your body is not used to. Beneficial stress. - Too much stress is bad, not enough doesn’t have benefits. General adaptation syndrome: alarm phase, resistance phase, and exhaustion. Adaptation varies from person to person. - Alarm: body is on alert. Dip in the alarm phase is called Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness/Fatigue. Soreness is part of the adaptation= good damage. - Resistance Development: muscles are fatigued, they know to store more nutrients for next time. (Ex.: increase size/number of blood vessels for oxygen deliverance, increased respiratory rate). The higher in adaptation, the harder it is to get to the next level (beginners advance very quickly). - Exhaustion: Muscle Adaptation Repeated exposure to the same stressors= adaptation Skeletal muscles undergo significant modifications in response to stress. Muscle strength= amount of force generated by the muscles To optimize adaptation, it’s important to take the overload principle into account. - Overload principle: in order for muscles to adapt and develop their strength and power, they must be worked to their capacity. - Repetition maximum: max amount of weight one can lift in one rep (60-80%) - Hypertrophy: force and velocity (velocity= how fast muscle contracts) - Increase in protein leads to increase in muscles - DOMS Specificity: fat loss cannot be specific to one area of the body  The individual’s principle: every person is different, there is no “one size fits all” exercise. There is an increase in muscle type conversion during high-intensity exercise, increase in the conversion of type llx muscle fibers to type lla fibers. - Different genetic makeup, history of activity, aerobic, anaerobic, all makes a difference. Energy storage in muscle is optimized through Resistance Training Adaptation Intensity of workout is contingent upon the weight of the load Increased loads will result in greater muscular adaptation Cross bridges= muscles interact together Motor units= brain control of muscles (coordination) Force can be increased by increasing proteins in the muscle. Sarcomere= functional unit in muscle cells. Weightlifting/ anaerobic= enhancements in muscle strength and power Aerobic Training Adaptation Focused on duration, not intensity, so need more fuel. VO2 Max: max amount of oxygen your body delivers Aerobic training increases capacity and duration of oxygen delivered. Cardiac output= amount of blood the heart pumps in one minute. More blood= more nutrient delivery. At rest= 5 liters/min (increase with exercise) Heart rate= heart beats per minute Aerobic enhancement= increased endurance During treadmill exercise, the body will enhance cardiac output, circulation (blood flow), and exchange of gasses. Body adapts to sustain more energy and delay fatigue Energy “currency”= ATP. Muscles need food (carbs or lipids specifically, major sources of energy) and oxygen (O2). - Food: storage and delivery - O2: Delivery (can’t store oxygen). - Lungs: respiratory rate (RR); how fast/much are you breathing. MV (minute volume). Cardiovascular system: delivery of oxygen is dependent on this. VO2 Max: Maximum capacity our body has to transport and utilize oxygen during exercise. Stroke volume: how much blood per beat. CO (cardiac output)= HR x SV (Stroke Volume) - Cardiac output at rest= 5 liters/min on average, increases differently for each person during exercise but about 5x. HR max= 220-age TSV (Training Sensitive Zone)= 60% to 90% of HR max.  Trained and untrained people have the same HR max, trained people’s bodies are able to delay reaching HR max. Different cardiac output, untrained= 22l/min during exercise, trained= 34l/min. Heart is more efficient in a trained person Vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessels, slowing or blocking blood flow. Vasodilation: widening of blood vessels, increasing blood flow. Vitamins What are vItamins? - Micronutrients - Organic (Carbon containing compounds) - Vitamins are chemicals needed for metabolism - Essential (must be consumed in the diet) - Some are hydrophilic (water soluble, cannot be stored) and some are hydrophobic (water insoluble, fat soluble; meaning they’re stored in our fat cells) - Hydrophobic: Vitamin A, D, E, and K. - Hydrophilic: C, Bs - In the food vitamins naturally exist in, the absorption is a lot more efficient than a pill. - Animal products are loaded with vitamins - Two extremes: Deficiency and Toxicity - Deficiency is actually pretty rare, more common in vegans. - For each vitamin: Know the function in the body, what happens with toxicity and deficiency. Vitamin A Retinol/ retinal Plays a crucial role in the functioning of photoreceptors, very important for vision. Reproduction Toxicity is very rare Vitamin D Cholecalciferol Absorbs calcium (Important for bones, heart functions, nerve functions, blood) Deficiency is common (osteoporosis is common disease associated with deficiency) A lot of food is now fortified with vitamins like calcium Can be produced in the body (exposure to sunlight triggers chemical reaction in the skin that causes synthesis of vitamin D, still essential) Osteoporosis Compact bone: outside bone, very herd. Spongy bones: Inside of bones are softer because blood vessels and nerves need to go through tiny openings. In osteoporosis, opening in spongy bone are larger. Vitamin E Tocopherol Antioxidants; very important for cardiovascular process, Oxidation: any chemical reaction in the body related to oxygen. O2 is a stable molecule, but some of the oxygen in the body can become unstable (free radicals) that wreak havoc in the body by reacting to molecules they shouldn’t react with (anything with oxygen, such as DNA). The body makes natural antioxidants (antioxidant enzymes), consuming vitamins/ antioxidants help combat free radicals. Food companies love to market vegetable oil because it has vitamin E, but vegetable oil is terrible for you. Vitamin K Important in blood cell development. Maturation of blood cells: erythrocytes Metabolic functions Essential, but also produced in the body ( by flora (bacteria) in large intestine) Very present in animal product and green leafy vegetables. Vitamin C Antioxidant Quantity dependent absorption (The more that’s consumed, the less is absorbed) Positive effect on immune system (increases immunity) Prevents bleeding DNA repair Viatmin B1 Important for ATP production Forms Thiamin Vitamin B12 Only found in animal sources, plant sources are deficient in it. The digestion process is quite complex, providing effective protection against stomach acid. Red blood cells. Cardiovascular Disease Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of death. Most are CVDs related to lifestyle. Congenital: not related to lifestyle, born with it, genetic. Atherosclerosis (hardening of the blood vessels) is the leading cause of CVDs.  - If occurs in blood vessel that supplies the heart= heart attack, blood vessel that supplies the brain= stroke. Hypertension and atherosclerosis can start very early in life, people may just not be aware of them. The first warning sign of a heart attack is the heart attack itself. Cardiovascular system Three parts: 1. Heart: functions to pump the blood, involuntary muscle. 2. Blood Vessels: conduit (pathway) 3. Blood: Plasma; cells. Nourishes cells- oxygen and energy molecules. Picks up waste from the cells. The cardiovascular system is a closed system that transports blood to the entire body via blood vessels. Meaning that all times, the blood is contained in the heart and blood vessels. - Oxygen and nutrients are delivered to the cells, and waste products (mostly CO2) are picked up. The pathway between the heart and the lungs is called the pulmonary circuit. The carrying of blood from the heart to the tissues and organs and the returning of deoxygenated blood to the heart is called a systemic circuit. Normal Cardiovascular Process: 4 chambers: Top chambers = atrium, bottom chambers = ventricles. The atria are the receiving chambers, meaning the blood comes to them as the input. The ventricles are the output, or pumping chambers. The blood always flows from the atria to the ventricles. Function of the right atrium: received used blood (deoxygenated blood with waste products, coming from the body.) Blood travels from the right atrium to the right ventricle; function of the right ventricle is to send the used blood out to the lungs through the pulmonary trunk. Blood comes back to the heart through the left atrium and is sent to the left ventricle. The left ventricle now has the “fresh blood”, and pumps the blood through the aorta through the body. When the heart contracts, blood is ejected out. The heart must relax to fill up with blood. Both components are equally important. The heart is always alternating between relaxation and contraction. Relaxation = diastole Contraction = systole When the heart contracts, it is ejecting blood through the pulmonary trunk and aorta. Exerts a lot of pressure on the aorta. The coronary circuit is the system of arteries and veins that delivers oxygenated blood to the heart. - Right coronary artery ( supplies blood to right side of heart) and left coronary artery. - Left anterior descending artery (delivers blood to the left ventricle).  - A lot of heart problems occur in the left coronary artery and the left anterior descending artery. They’re very prone to fat deposits because there’s a split, makes them more prone for blockage. - Atherosclerosis happens to specific blood vessels. Heart output Cardiac output= amount of blood ejected from the blood per minute. Heart Rate x Stroke Volume. CO: Amount of blood ejected from the heart every minute (L/min). HR: Beats per minutes (BMP) SV: Amount of blood ejected from the heart every beat (L/B) CO: 5 L/m at rest, 20 L/min during exercise Arteries and Veins Arteries take blood away from the heart. Carry the blood directly from the heart Veins are the blood vessels that take blood back to the heart Venule: small vein Capillaries: tiny blood vessels that deliver blood to the actual tissue Arteriole: tiny artery Every artery has three layers: each layer is called tunica: 1. Tunica intima: innermost layer 2. Tunica media: middle layer 3. Tunica externa: outermost layer 4. Lumen= open space inside artery Outer layer is referred to as being “plastic”, meaning it’s flexible/ elastic. Tunica intima: smooth, produce nitric oxide (vasodilator) Tunica media can change the diameter of the blood vessel when needed Blood vessels are involuntary smooth muscles: vasoconstriction and vasodilation. If tissues can’t produce NO, they can’t vasodilate, they can’t bring a lot of oxygen to the tissue. High blood pressure damages the tunica intima so it can’t release NO, can’t vasodilate, and therefore can’t accommodate large quantities of blood. NO acts on the tunica media Blood Cellular components: - Erythrocytes (RBC) - Leukocytes (WBC) - Immune cells - Platelets: promote clotting when there is a cut Plasma (fluid) - Water - Ions  - Hormones - Proteins - Nutrients: glucose (individual molecules of carbohydrates), amino acids (components of proteins), lipids (fatty acids) - Glucose and amino acids are water soluble, so they flow very easily in the blood. - Lipids don’t travel in the blood easily (water insoluble), so they travel in “packages called vesicles. Culprit for CVDs. - There is a huge difference between dietary lipids and “packaged” lipids produced in the body (made by the liver) Vesicles (package); produced by the body (liver) - Chylomicrons: carry dietary lipids from small intestine to liver - VLDL: Produced in the liver, lipids processed in the liver, Triglycerides and cholesterol. Carry lipids from liver to tissue in the entire body. - LDL: Formed in blood, derived from VLDL. Carries lots of cholesterol and few triglycerides. Fat deposits= stuck LDL in the bloodstream. “Bad” :( - HDL: Produced in the liver and functions to collect cholesterol from tissue back to liver. “Good” :) Any dietary lipid ends up being triglycerides or cholesterol: Majority is triglycerides, very small amount is cholesterol. Doctors like to see a high level of HDL and a normal/ low level of LDL. Lipoprotein: facilitates the transportation of lipids into blood plasma The quality of LDL is what can be to blame for CVDs (oxidation= damage) Plaque formation in the blood vessel can result in occlusion, preventing the blood from flowing further. Plaque/fat gradually formulates on the sides of the blood vessels. This beginning step is called LDL Oxidation (means that LDL vesicles broke down) - In response, extra HDL is sent to the blood vessel (Initiation Stage). - The body then sends macrophages to the site to clear the blood vessels. As the macrophages are working, causing more inflammation, macrophages break down. - Occlusion, more cells, more chemicals = inflammation. - Inflammation= overactive immune system. - Body begins to build fibers over the blockade, leads to flow occlusion. Less blood flow to certain areas= no nutrients to cells= cells slowly start to die (ischemia) - Most common places: blood vessels that supply the brain (stroke) - Blood vessel can rupture. - Entire blockage can break off, travel in the circulation, and block a smaller blood vessel in its entirety. This can lead to myocardial infarction (heart attack) or stroke. - Angina pectoris: chest pain, warning sign for a heart attack. Blood test is the most inexpensive way to diagnose a disease. Full lipid panel (total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, LDL to HDL ration)  - Solutions: medications, diet, surgery/ imaging. - Triglyceride is a very important number to look at - TG: HDL Ratio (1.5:1 = good) - Quality of LDL (size of LDL; big = good, small= bad) - Inflammatory Markers (CRP, Interleukin; the higher the number, the more the immune system is active) - Issue is not fat, but sugar, trans fat, and omega 6 fat. Carbohydrates Essential: 1g= 4 Cal Majority function in body = energy/ fuel= synthesis of ATP Red blood cells can only use carbohydrates for energy because they carry oxygen. Even if on a zero carb diet, the liver can convert fat into carbohydrates. The brain likes to use carbs as a source of energy, but can adapt to using other sources. The body is able to use carbs, lipids, or proteins as a source of energy, but the cells prefer not to use proteins because they have other important functions. Carbs and lipids more commonly used. Lipids= more energy per molecule, slow process. Carbohydrates = fast process, don’t generate as much ATP as lipids. Humans have 100 trillion cells, every single cell needs energy to function. About 200 different kinds of cells. What are Carbohydrates? The majority of carbohydrates come from plant sources. - Plants have the capacity to produce carbohydrates through photosynthesis. - The two most common: wheat and corn. Two major categories of carbohydrates: 1. Sugar (all bad) 2. Complex Carbohydrates (depends on the person) 4 Main Types of Cells in the Body: 1. Muscles: Calories-burning machines, Always being used, store carbohydrates in the form of glycogen. Store as much as they need to burn for energy. 2. Liver: A lot of metabolic functions, stores a lot of nutrients/ carbs. Has a limited capacity for carbohydrate storage. When it reaches capacity, they get sent to muscles and adipose tissue. 3. Adipose Tissue (Fat cells): Storage, unlimited capacity. When they run out of space, they expand to areas that do not normally have fat. 4. Body cells: Everything else. Chemical Composition Monosaccharides: smallest molecule of carbohydrates.Simplest sugar. Naturally very rare (some in fruit and honey)  Disaccharides: two molecules of sugar connected together. The majority of food we consume contains this. Polysaccharides: many molecules connected together as a chain. - Polysaccharide = complex Monosaccharides Glucose: universal/ most abundant form of carbohydrates. Preferred molecule in the body. Everything gets converted into glucose. Fructose: sweetest (sweeter than glucose) Galactose: least abundant. Does not exist loose by itself in a small amount naturally. Glucose and fructose can be used by bacteria, galactose cannot (so doesn’t cause tooth decay) Disaccharides Lactose: glucose + galactose. Found in dairy products. Sucrose: glucose + fructose. Very sweet. Food companies have taken the complex carbohydrates in corn and converted it to glucose (High Fructose Corn Syrup) because corn is a cheap resource. Maltose: glucose + glucose. Not very common.