PS 101 - Chapter 1 - Introduction to Psychology PDF

Chapter 1 What Is Psychology? Early attempts were made to explain and predict thoughts and emotions. The modern science of studying mental processes and behaviour is called psychology. It aims to understand how the mind and b...

Chapter 1 What Is Psychology? Early attempts were made to explain and predict thoughts and emotions. The modern science of studying mental processes and behaviour is called psychology. It aims to understand how the mind and behaviour are influenced by psychobiology and external environmental factors. Early psychology explored mental processes by observing outward behaviour and making inferences about internal states. In their book, 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Nature - Lilienfeld, Lynn, Ruscio, and Beyerstein (2010) highlight the importance of understanding myths for three reasons: 1. Myths can be harmful. 2. They can cause indirect damage. 3. Accepting myths in one area can impede thinking in others. Results indicated that individuals identifying as having "common sense," religious, or "right-wing" were better at identifying myths. Furnham suggests that being informed and open to relevant information can help debunk myths. Psychologists studying mental processes and behaviour typically aim for one of four goals. - Description - Explanation - Prediction - Control Description: Psychologists aim to describe observations in detail. Explanation: Psychologists aim to answer the question of “Why?” Prediction: Psychologists seek to predict the circumstances under which specific behaviours and mental processes occur. Control: Psychology helps in managing behaviours and mental processes, whether for oneself or others. To describe, explain, predict, or control mental processes and behaviours, it's essential to recognize various influences. Thoughts and actions involve complex activation and coordination across multiple levels: - Brain Level - Individual Level - Group Level Psychological processes do not occur exclusively at one level; all three levels interact. Analysing the interplay between the brain, individual, and group provides valuable insights into human functioning. Focusing on only one level may lead to overlooked insights about mental processes and behaviours. At the brain level, psychologists examine neuronal activity related to information transmission and storage. They also consider brain structure and the genes that influence its development. Advances in molecular biology and brain imaging technology allow for studying variations in brain structure and activity among individuals and situations. Psychologists can now investigate which brain regions are activated by drug administration. Research also explores brain changes associated with increased anxiety, depression, and sleep disruption after traumatic brain injuries. At the person level, psychologists analyse how mental processes—such as emotions, thoughts, and ideas—shape and influence behaviour. Key concepts at the person level include: - Consciousness - Intelligence - Personality - Motivation Psychologists consider how individual differences in personality affect emotional responses. They also examine the impact of child maltreatment on later parenting behaviour. Understanding person-level processes like personality and motivation requires studying this level, even though it is influenced by the brain's biological structures. Psychologists must consider the group level, recognizing that humans are influenced by their social environments, which evolve over time. - Groups can consist of friends, family, or larger populations. - Research at the group level may investigate: - The impact of immigration status on elementary school student performance. - The relationship between gangster culture and mental health in adolescents. Large groups often share a culture, encompassing common beliefs, practices, values, and history transmitted across generations. Group membership or perceived belonging can significantly influence individual thoughts and behaviours. Canadian culture is shaped by Indigenous history and the contributions of early settlers and immigrants, creating a diverse population with mixed ethnic groups and cultures. Culture is a set of shared beliefs and practices that are transmitted across generations. Psychologists may focus on a single level of analysis in their research. It's crucial to recognize that activity occurs at all three levels simultaneously. Everyday activities involve interactions across the brain, individual, and group levels. The levels influence each other; for example, brain activity can be shaped by social and cultural contexts. Changes in brain biology can lead to significant alterations in overall well-being. Example Examining FoMO (Fear of Missing Out) can be approached at various levels of analysis. - Brain Level: Psychologists could investigate patterns of brain activation in social media users experiencing FoMO, focusing on brain changes when they go online or interact with others. - Person Level: Research could explore early childhood experiences and personality traits to identify characteristics that may increase the risk of developing FoMO. - Group Level: Psychologists might analyse whether the need for social comparison can be leveraged to enhance happiness and life satisfaction. The concept of multiple levels of analysis is crucial in developing psychological theories. Psychology’s Roots in Philosophy Historically, humans have used rituals and myths to explain inexplicable events in their natural environments. - Myths: Stories of forgotten origins that aim to explain or rationalise universal mysteries of life, common across all cultures.  - Topics addressed by myths include: - Reasons for earthquakes - Variations in crop yields - The origin of humanity - Rituals: Solemn ceremonies associated with myths, celebrating important religious or social occasions within a culture. - Rituals reflect an inherent human need to understand and make sense of people and the natural world. Some theorists suggest that science parallels mythology, as both represent efforts to describe, explain, predict, and control our reality. Various cultures, including the Babylonians and Buddhists, emphasised supernatural, life-giving forces and developed early belief systems about the universe's origins. - These belief systems contributed to intellectual curiosity and the quest for knowledge. - The intellectual history of psychology primarily begins with Greek philosophy. Unlike other major world philosophies, the Greeks had a recorded language, which allowed for the documentation of their thoughts and ideas (Guthrie & Warren, 2013). Early Greek philosophers in the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.E. moved beyond myths and rituals, seeking to understand reality and the limits of human awareness. They did not consistently use empirical methods but engaged in open, critical discussions of each other’s ideas. Philosophy: Defined as the study of knowledge, reality, and the nature and meaning of life. Ancient philosophers like Plato, Aristotle, and Hippocrates explored questions such as: - How does the human mind work? - How is the human body related to the mind? - Is knowledge inborn or acquired through experience? Greek philosophers developed a problem-solving method involving questioning proposed solutions, which is central to modern scientific methods. They emphasised that theories and ideas are not final but are always subject to improvement, a view that remains prevalent in psychology today. The Greeks understood the integration of mental and physical health, recognizing the connection between the mind and body. - Hippocrates (ca. 460–377 B.C.E.), known as the "Father of Medicine," believed diseases had physical and rational explanations, not caused by evil spirits or divine punishment. He proposed that an individual’s physical and psychological health was influenced by the balance of four bodily humours:  - Blood - Phlegm - Yellow bile - Black bile According to Hippocrates, the balance of these humours determined personality, character, well-being, and responses to environmental events. Although his theory of humourism was incorrect, Hippocrates emphasised the importance of good food, fresh air, and rest. He accurately diagnosed pneumonia and epilepsy and identified the brain as the organ of mental life. Hippocrates argued that thoughts, ideas, and feelings originated in the brain, challenging the prevailing belief that they originated in the heart. He tested his theories through direct observation and experimentation, laying the groundwork for academic study rooted in scientific methods. Hippocrates believed that good physical and mental health depended on the balance of the body's four humours. - Four Humours and Associated Temperaments: - Blood: Sanguine - Phlegm: Phlegmatic - Yellow Bile: Choleric - Black Bile: Melancholic The Roman physician and philosopher **Galen of Pergamon** later associated Hippocrates' humours with these temperamental characteristics. - Plato (ca. 427–347 B.C.E.) believed that the human mind was imprinted with all relevant knowledge, which was **innate**, meaning inborn or existing from birth. He theorised that a healthy mind maintained a balance among **intellect**, **emotion**, and **base desires/appetites**. An imbalance in any of these areas led to unhealthy mental states. - For example, greed and avarice could result from desires and appetites dominating behaviour. Plato believed that a balanced and healthy psyche allowed reasoning to uncover the core ideas embedded in the human mind. Much of the basis of Western philosophy rests on the thoughts and ideas of three Greek philosophers: Hippocrates, Plato, and Aristotle. - Aristotle (ca. 384–322 B.C.E.), a student of Plato and one of the most renowned Greek thinkers, made foundational contributions to psychology. His writings introduced important early theories on topics such as: - Sensations - Dreams - Sleep - Learning. Aristotle was among the first to advocate for **empirical** (testable) investigations of the natural world. He examined both sensory experiences and his environment to determine the purpose of all objects and creatures. In his studies, Aristotle developed ideas on the hierarchical categorization of living beings. - Centuries before Darwin, he concluded that humans are closely related to animals.