Rathus Introductory Psychology 6 PDF

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  YOUR FEED-...

Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  YOUR FEED- BACK YOUR BOOK Our research never ends. Continual feedback from you ensures that we keep up with your changing needs. www.cengage.com Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Inside Front Cover (8.5”) Inside Back Cover (8.5")  PSYCH introductory psychology 6 SPENCER A. RATHUS Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 1 9/17/18 7:35 AM  PSYCH6 © 2020, 2018, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc. Spencer A Rathus Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. Senior Vice President, Higher Ed Product, Content, and Market Development: Erin Joyner ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Cover Image: Flashpop/DigitalVision/Getty Images Intellectual Property Analyst: Deanna Ettinger Library of Congress Control Number: 2018954593 Intellectual Property Project Manager: Jillian Shafer Student Edition ISBN: 978-0-357-04121-5 Production Service: SPi Global Student Edition with MindTap ISBN: 978-0-357-04105-5 Cengage 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125 countries around the world. Find your local representative at www.cengage.com. Cengage products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. To learn more about Cengage platforms and services, register or access your online learning solution, or purchase materials for your course, visit www.cengage.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2018 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 2 9/17/18 7:35 AM  SPencer A. Rathus PSYCH 6 Brief Contents 1 What Is Psychology? 2 2 Biology and Psychology 30 3 Sensation and Perception 62 4 Consciousness 92 5 Learning 120 6 Memory: Remembrance of Things Past—and Future 146 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence 174 8 Motivation and Emotion 204 9 The Voyage through the Life Span 232 10 Personality: Theory and Measurement 260 11 Stress, Health, and Coping 286 12 Psychological Disorders 306 13 Methods of Therapy 330 14 Social Psychology 354 Appendix: Statistics 382 Answers to Chapter Review Questions 396 References 398 Index 425 Quiet Noise Creative/Getty Images iii Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 3 9/25/18 6:03 PM  Contents 3-3 Visual Perception 73 3-4 Hearing 80 3-5 The Other Senses 84 3-6 ESP: Is there Perception without Sensation? 87 4 Consciousness Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo 92 4-1 What Is Consciousness? 93 4-2 Sleep and Dreams 96 4-3 Altering Consciousness: Hypnosis, Meditation, and Biofeedback 102 4-4 Altering Consciousness through Drugs 106 4-5 Depressants 108 1 What Is Psychology? 4-6 Stimulants 110 2 4-7 Hallucinogenics 114 1-1 Psychology as a Science 4 1-2 Historical Foundations of Psychology 7 1-3 Contemporary Perspectives in Psychology 11 5 Learning 120 5-1 Learning, Experience, and Change 121 1-4 How Psychologists Study Behavior and Mental Processes 15 5-2 Classical Conditioning: Learning What is Linked to What 122 1-5 Methods of Research 18 5-3 Applications of Classical Conditioning 126 1-6 Ethics in Psychological Research 23 5-4 Operant Conditioning: Learning What does 1-7 Critical Thinking 24 What to What 129 5-5 Applications of Operant Conditioning 136 2 Biology and Psychology 30 5-6 Cognitive Factors in Learning 138 2-1 The Nervous System: On Being Wired 32 2-2 The Divisions of the Nervous System 38 2-3 The Brain: Wider than the Sky 41 6 Memory: Remembrance of Things Past—and 2-4 A Voyage through the Brain 43 Future 146 2-5 The Cerebral Cortex 46 6-1 Kinds of Memory 147 2-6 The Endocrine System 49 6-2 Processes of Memory 150 2-7 Evolution and Heredity 52 6-3 Sensory Memory 153 3 Sensation and Perception 62 6-4 Short-Term Memory 154 6-5 Long-Term Memory 157 3-1 Sensation and Perception 63 6-6 Forgetting 161 3-2 Vision 67 6-7 The Biology of Memory 167 iv Contents Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 4 9/17/18 7:35 AM  10 Personality: Theory and Measurement 260 10-1 The Psychodynamic Perspective 262 10-2 The Trait Perspective 268 Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo 10-3 Learning-Theory Perspectives 271 10-4 The Humanistic–Existential Perspective 273 10-5 The Sociocultural Perspective 277 10-6 Measurement of Personality 279 11 Stress, Health, and Coping 286 7 Thinking, Language, 11-1 Stress: What it is, Where it Comes From 288 and Intelligence 174 11-2 Psychological Moderators of Stress 293 7-1 Thinking 175 11-3 Stress and the Body 295 7-2 Language 182 11-4 Psychology and Chronic Health Problems 299 7-3 Language Development: The Two-Year Explosion 185 7-4 Theories of Intelligence 189 7-5 The Measurement of Intelligence 193 12 Psychological Disorders 306 12-1 What Are Psychological Disorders? 307 7-6 Nature and Nurture in Intelligence 198 12-2 Anxiety Disorders 310 8 Motivation and Emotion 12-3 Obsessive–Compulsive and Related Disorders 313 204 12-4 Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders 314 8-1 The Psychology of Motivation 205 12-5 Dissociative Disorders 315 8-2 Theories of Motivation 206 12-6 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders 316 8-3 Hunger 209 12-7 Mood Disorders 317 8-4 Sexual Motivation and Sexual Orientation 214 12-8 Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders 322 8-5 Achievement Motivation 219 12-9 Personality Disorders 326 8-6 Emotion 220 8-7 Theories of Emotion 224 9 The Voyage through the Life Span 232 9-1 Prenatal Development 233 9-2 Childhood: Physical Development 235 marco betti/Alamy Stock Photo 9-3 Childhood: Cognitive Development 237 9-4 Childhood: Social and Emotional Development 244 9-5 Adolescence 247 9-6 Emerging Adulthood 251 9-7 Adulthood 252 Contents v Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 5 9/17/18 7:36 AM  13-6 Group Therapies 343 13-7 Does Psychotherapy Work? 345 13-8 Biological Therapies 348 14 Social Psychology 354 Ambrophoto/Alamy Stock Photo 14-1 Attitudes 356 14-2 Prejudice and Discrimination 360 14-3 Attraction and Love 362 14-4 Social Perception 365 14-5 Social Influence 367 14-6 Aggression 372 14-7 Group Behavior 373 13 Methods of Therapy 330 13-1 What Is Psychotherapy? 332 13-2 Psychodynamic Therapies 334 Appendix: Statistics 382 13-3 Humanistic Therapies 335 Answers to Chapter Review Questions 396 13-4 Behavior Therapy 337 References 398 13-5 Cognitive Therapies 341 Index 425 vi Contents Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 6 9/17/18 7:36 AM  Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_fm_hr_i-vii.indd 7 9/17/18 7:36 AM  1 What Is Psychology? Image Source/Alamy Stock Photo LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you will be able to… 1-1 Define psychology and describe what psychologists do. 1-5 Explain how psychologists engage in research—including methods of observation, correlation, and experimentation— 1-2 Describe the origins of psychology and discuss people who to learn about behavior and mental processes. have made significant contributions to the field. 1-6 Discuss ethical standards that govern psychological 1-3 Identify the theoretical perspectives from which psychologists research and practice with humans and animals. today view behavior and mental processes. 1-7 Identify and discuss principles of critical thinking. 1-4 Outline the scientific method, and explain the relationship between samples and populations. 2 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 2 9/5/18 5:57 PM  M y favorite place: The checkout counter of the supermarket. After being remembered their experiences while undergoing therapy, often under hypnosis. Tales of alien buffeted about by the crowds abduction are widely known in the aisles and trying to throughout our culture, so it convince myself that I really is not at all surprising that the will survive until the people in “memories” of people who line ahead of me are checked claim to have been inducted by out, I am rewarded by the aliens would tend to coincide display of all the supermarket (Meyersburg et al., 2009; tabloids. The headlines cry Swami et al., 2009). Bloomberg/Getty Images out. Each week, there are Abductees generally claim 10 new sightings of Elvis that they are awakened in their and 10 new encounters with sleep by the aliens and unable extraterrestrials. There are to move. Psychologists know 10 new “absolutely proven Truth or Fiction? that many of our voluntary The world is flooded with sense and effective” ways to take weight nonsense. How can you sort out truth muscles—the ones involved in off and 10 new ways to conquer from fiction? movement—are “paralyzed” stress and depression. There when we sleep, which is are 10 new ways to tell if your why we usually don’t thrash partner has been cheating and, of course, 10 new about (and assault our bed partners) when we predictions by astrologers and psychics. dream (Torontali et al., 2014; Finkelstein, 2017). Extraterrestrials regularly kidnap us Earthlings. Hallucinations—seeing and hearing things that are Although they possess the technology to leap not really there—are quite common as we are waking between the stars, aliens must apparently prod from a sleep-paralyzed state, and it seems that the and poke us to figure out how we work. While we reported experiences of “abductees” fit the pattern. update our iPhones with the latest apps and music, tabloid drawings suggest that aliens have been flying the same model flying saucer for decades. Their sense of style is nothing to text home about. Although we can find some humor in tales of abduction by aliens, psychologists and other WHAT DO YOU THINK? Folklore, common sense, or nonsense? scientists are interested in the questions these Select T for “truth” or F for “fiction,” and then check the accuracy of your answers as you read through the chapter. tales raise about human nature and the distinction between sensationalism and science. What do T F Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in psychology. we know about people who claim to have been T F More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on psychology with contents similar to those in the book you’re now reading. abducted by aliens? How can we sort truth from T F The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates suggested a research method fiction and decide whether we will believe them? that is still used in psychology. Psychologists who have studied claimed T F Even though she had worked to complete all the degree requirements, alien kidnappings conclude that the kidnappings the first female president of the American Psychological Association turned down the doctoral degree that was offered to her. never occurred. However, the people making T F You could survey millions of voters and still not accurately predict the the claims are not necessarily mentally ill, nor outcome of a presidential election. are they necessarily lying (Ladd & Borshuk, T F In many experiments, neither the participants nor the researchers know 2013). By and large, these are people who have who is receiving the real treatment and who is not. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 3 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 3 9/5/18 5:57 PM  Psychologists also know that people are quite by aliens and being subjected to tests by them. open to suggestion (Loftus, 2017; Vyse, 2014). But is there scientific evidence that people have Memories are not perfect snapshots. When trial been abducted by aliens? In sum, when we subject witnesses are asked leading questions—questions the stories in the supermarket tabloids to scientific that might encourage them to recall events in a analysis, we usually find that they fall short of any certain way—the opposing attorney will usually reasonable standards of evidence. object (“Leading the witness, your Honor”). This book will take you on a journey. It’s not a Sometimes, the person interviewing the supposed journey into outer space. It’s a journey into the inner kidnap victim asks leading questions, looking for space of thinking critically about the world around you, experiences with aliens. about stories and arguments made by other people, All in all, “UFO memories may be constructed about human behavior and mental processes. In our from bits and pieces of sleep-related hallucinations, overview of reported alien abductions, we touched nightmares, and media attention, and fixed solidly on people’s memories, the state of consciousness into place with the suggestion of hypnosis and known as sleep, hallucinations, hypnosis, the search the validation of support groups” (Clark & Loftus, for stimulating events, social influences on witnesses, 1996 ). “Abductees” may also be trying to escape, and the effects of social support and the media. All temporarily, from their humdrum lives—as might be these, and much, much more, lie within the province buyers of supermarket tabloids (Finkelstein, 2017). of psychology. We will see who psychologists are, Psychologists have thus worked to explain how what they do, what they have learned, and perhaps it can be that many people report being abducted most important, how they sort out truth from fiction. 1-1 PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE behavior and apply this knowledge for the public good— for example, to help individuals cope with problems such as anxiety and depression. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and men- When possible, descriptive terms and concepts— tal processes. Topics of interest to psychologists include such as anxiety and depression—are interwoven into the nervous system, sensation and perception, learning and memory, intelligence, language, thought, growth and theories. Theories propose reasons for relationships development, personality, stress and health, psychological among events, as in perception of a threat can arouse disorders, ways of treating those disorders, sexual behav- feelings of anxiety. They allow us to derive explana- ior, and the behavior of people in social settings such as tions and predictions. Many psychological theories groups and organizations. combine statements about behavior (such as eating Sciences have certain goals. Psychology, like other or aggression), mental processes (such as attitudes sciences, seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control and mental images), and biological processes. For the events it studies. Psychology thus seeks to describe, instance, many of our responses to drugs such as alco- explain, predict, and control behavior and mental pro- hol and marijuana can be measured as overt behavior, cesses. Note that the goal of controlling behavior and and they are presumed to reflect our (mental) expec- mental processes doesn’t tations of the drugs and the biological effects of the mean that psycholo- drugs themselves. psychology the science that gists seek ways to make A satisfactory psychological theory allows us to pre- studies behavior and mental people do their bidding, dict behavior. For instance, a theory of hunger should processes like puppets on strings. allow us to predict when people will or will not eat. If theory a set of hypothesized our observations cannot be adequately explained by, or statements about the relationships Rather, psychologists among events seek to understand the predicted from, a given theory, we should consider revis- factors that influence ing or replacing that theory. 4 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 4 9/5/18 5:57 PM  The remainder of this chapter presents an overview self-defeating behavior. For example, they may help cli- of psychology as a science. You will see that psychologists ents face “threats,” such as public speaking, by exposing have diverse interests and fields of specialization. We dis- them gradually to situations in which they make presen- cuss the history of psychology and the major perspectives tations to actual or virtual groups (see virtual therapy from which today’s psychologists view behavior. Finally, in Chapter 13). Clinical psychologists are the largest we consider the research methods psychologists use to subgroup of psychologists (see Figure 1.1). Counseling study behavior and mental processes. psychologists, like clinical psychologists, use interviews and tests to define their clients’ problems. Their clients 1-1a WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO typically have adjustment problems but not serious psychological disorders. For example, clients may have Psychologists share a keen interest in behavior, but trouble making academic or vocational decisions; LGBT they may differ markedly in other ways. Psychologists clients may have difficulty coping with prejudice and engage in research, practice, and teaching. Some discrimination. researchers engage primarily in basic, or pure, research. School psychologists are employed by school systems Pure research is undertaken because the researcher to identify and assist students who have problems that is interested in the research topic. Pure research has interfere with learning. They help schools make decisions no immediate application to personal or social problems about the placement of students in special classes. and has therefore been characterized as research for its Educational psychologists, like school psychologists, own sake. However, although pure research is sparked attempt to facilitate learning, but they usually focus on by curiosity and the desire to know and understand, course planning and instructional methods for a school today’s pure research frequently enhances tomorrow’s system rather than on individual children. Educational way of life. For example, pure research on learning and psychologists research issues such as how learning is motivation in pigeons, rats, and monkeys done early in affected by psychological factors such as motivation and the 20th century has found applications in today’s school intelligence, sociocultural factors such as poverty and systems. It has shown, for example, that learning often acculturation, and teachers. takes time and repetition and also profits from “booster Developmental psychologists study the changes— shots” (repetition after the learning goal has been physical, cognitive, social, and emotional—that occur reached). Pure research into the workings of the ner- throughout the life span. They attempt to sort out the influ- vous system has enhanced knowledge of disorders such ences of heredity and the environment on development. as epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease. Personality psychologists identify and measure Other psychologists engage in applied research, human traits and determine influences on human thought which is designed to find solutions to specific personal processes, feelings, and behavior. They are particularly or social problems. concerned with issues such as anxiety, aggression, sexual Many psychologists do not conduct research. orientation, and gender roles. Instead, they practice psychology by applying psychologi- Social psychologists are concerned with the cal knowledge to help individuals change their behavior nature and causes of individuals’ thoughts, feelings, so that they can meet their own goals more effectively. Still other psychologists primarily teach. They share and behavior in social situations. Whereas personality psychological knowledge in classrooms, seminars, and psychologists tend to look within the person to explain workshops. Psychologists may also engage in all three: behavior, social psychologists tend to focus on social research, practice, and teaching. influences. Environmental psychologists study the ways that people and the environment—the natural environment 1-1b FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY and the human-made environment—influence one Psychologists are found in a number of specialties. another. For example, we know that extremes of tem- Although some psychologists wear more than one hat, perature and loud noises most carry out their functions in the following fields. interfere with learning in pure research research conducted without concern for Clinical psychologists help people with psycho- school. Environmental immediate applications logical disorders adjust to the demands of life. Clinical psychologists study ways psychologists evaluate problems such as anxiety and to encourage people to applied research research conducted in an effort to find depression through interviews and psychological recycle and to preserve solutions to particular problems tests. They help clients resolve problems and change bastions of wilderness. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 5 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 5 9/5/18 5:57 PM  Fig.1.1 T HE PSYCHOLOGISTS: PSYCHOLOGISTS WITH NEW DOCTORATES VERSUS MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA) Cimmerian/Getty Images HUMAN SERVICE PROVIDER SUBFIELDS Clinical Child Psychology School Psychology Counseling Psychology Clinical Psychology WORK SETTING Schools/Educational Business and Government Independent Practice Other Human Service APA Members Hospitals College or University New Doctorates TYPE OF DEGREE Psy.D. Ph.D. MEMBERS OF MINORITY GROUPS American Indian Latin American African American Asian American GENDER Men Women 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% sdominick/Getty Images More women and members of ethnic minorities are entering the field of psychology today. The percentage of new psychologists with Psy.D. degrees is also growing. Source: Adapted from the American Psychological Association (2009). Doctoral Psychology Workforce Fast Facts. Health Service Provider Subfields. Center for Workforce Studies. Retrieved from http://research.apa.org/fastfacts-09.pdf. © Copyright 2009 APA Center for Workforce Studies. Washington, DC; and from American Psychological Association (2014). 2013 APA Directory. Compiled by Center for Workforce Studies, Tables 1, 2, 3, 4. APA Center for Workforce Studies. Washington, DC. Psychologists in all specialties may conduct For example, experimental psychologists have experiments. However, those called experimental studied what areas of the brain are involved in pro- psychologists specialize in basic processes such as cessing math problems or listening to music. They the nervous system, sensation and perception, learn- use people or animals, such as pigeons and rats, to ing and memory, thought, motivation, and emotion. study learning. 6 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 6 9/5/18 5:58 PM  Forensic psychologists apply psychology to the criminal justice system. They deal with legal mat- ters such as whether a defendant was sane when he or she committed a crime. Forensic psycholo- gists may also treat psychologically ill offenders, consult with attorneys on matters such as picking a jury, and analyze offenders’ behavior and mental processes. They may conduct research on matters Martyn Evans/Alamy Stock Photo ranging from evaluation of eyewitness testimony to methods of interrogation. Sport psychologists help athletes concentrate on their performance and not on the crowd, use cogni- tive strategies such as positive visualization (imagin- ing themselves making the right moves) to enhance The Origins of Aggression? performance, and avoid choking under pressure. Why are TV crime shows so popular? Why are people fascinated by psychopaths? Why do so many boys and men enjoy playing video games such as Grand Theft Auto, God of War, Call of Duty, 1-2 HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS and Battlefield? Psychologists investigate the origins of aggression and violence. They have found that aggressive people and mass OF PSYCHOLOGY murderers are more likely to play violent video games. Does this mean that violent video games cause violent behavior? Could it also Have you heard the expression “Know thyself”? It mean that violent individuals are more likely to seek out the games? was proposed by the ancient Greek philosopher Could both be true? (More on this in Chapter 5.) Socrates about 2,500 years ago. Psychology, which is in large part the endeavor to know ourselves, is as old as history and as modern as today. Knowledge of Industrial psychologists focus on the relationships the history of psychology allows us to between people and work. Organizational psychologists appreciate its theoretical conflicts, study the behavior of people in organizations such as its place among the sciences, the businesses. Human factors psychologists make technical evolution of its methods, and its systems such as automobile dashboards and computer social and political roles. keyboards more user-friendly. Consumer psychologists study the behavior of shoppers in an effort to predict and influence their behavior. They advise store managers on ARISTOTLE how to lay out the aisles of a supermarket in ways that Although he lived 2,400 boost impulse buying, how to arrange window displays to years ago, the Greek attract customers, and how to make newspaper ads and philosopher Aristotle made television commercials more persuasive. many contributions to Health psychologists study the effects of stress on contemporary psychology: health problems such as headaches, cardiovascular dis- ▸▸ He argued that science could rationally treat only ease, and cancer. Health psychologists also guide clients information gathered by the senses. toward healthier behavior patterns, such as exercising ▸▸ He enumerated the so-called five senses of vision, and quitting smoking. hearing, smell, taste, and touch. ▸▸ He explored the nature of cause and effect. ▸▸ He pointed out that people differ from other living things in their capacity for rational thought. ▸▸ He outlined laws of associationism that have lain T F Men receive the majority of doctoral degrees in at the heart of learning theory for more than two psychology. millennia. ▸▸ He also declared that people are motivated to seek It is not true that men receive the majority of pleasure and avoid pain—a view that remains doctoral degrees in psychology. Women do. as current today as it was in ancient Greece. CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 7 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 7 9/21/18 7:41 AM  Another ancient contributor to psychology was the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 bce). In a treatise on psychology, Aristotle argued that human behavior, like the T F The ancient Greek philosopher Socrates sug- movements of the stars and the seas, is subject to rules and gested a research method that is still used in laws. Then he delved into his subject matter topic by topic: psychology. personality, sensation and perception, thought, intelligence, Yes, Socrates did suggest a research needs and motives, feelings and emotion, and memory. method that is still used in psychology— introspection. The method is based on Socrates’ advice to “Know thyself,” which has remained a motto of psychology T F More than 2,000 years ago, Aristotle wrote a book on ever since. psychology with contents similar to those of the one you’re now reading. we must move on to the development of psychology as It is true that Aristotle wrote a book a laboratory science during the second half of the 19th on psychology with contents similar century. Some historians set the marker date at 1860. to the one you’re now reading more It was then that Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801–1887) than 2,000 years ago. In fact, the outline published his landmark book Elements of Psychophysics, for PSYCH could have been written by which showed how physical events (such as lights and Aristotle. sounds) stimulate psychological sensations and percep- tion. Fechner also showed how we can scientifically mea- sure the effect of these events. Most historians set the Other ancient Greek philosophers also contributed debut of modern psychology as a laboratory science in to psychology. Around 400 bce, Democritus suggested the year 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first that we could think of behavior in terms of a body and psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. a mind. (Contemporary psychologists still talk about the interaction of biological and mental processes.) He 1-2a STRUCTURALISM pointed out that our behavior is influenced by external stimulation. Democritus was one of the first to raise the The German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) question of whether there is free will or choice. Putting looked as if he were going to be a problem child. He did it another way, where do the influences of others end and poorly in elementary school—his mind would wander— our “real selves” begin? and he had to repeat a grade. Eventually he attended Socrates suggested that we should rely on ratio- medical school because he wanted to earn a good living. nal thought and introspection—careful examination But he did not like working with patients and dedicated of one’s own thoughts and emotions—to gain self- himself to philosophy and psychology. knowledge. He also pointed out that people are social Like Aristotle, Wundt saw the mind as a n ­ atural creatures who influence one another. occurrence that could be studied scientifically, like light, Had we room enough and time, we could trace heat, and the flow of blood. Wundt psychology’s roots to thinkers farther back in time than used introspection to try to discover the ancient Greeks, and we could trace its development the basic elements of experience. through the great thinkers of the Renaissance. As it is, Wundt and his students founded the school of psy- chology called structuralism. introspection deliberate WILHELM WUNDT Structuralism attempted to looking into one’s own cognitive processes to examine one’s thoughts Wilhelm Wundt, the founder break conscious experience down of structuralism, attempted and emotions into objective sensations, such to break down conscious structuralism the school of experience into as sight or taste, and subjective psychology that argues that the mind sensations such feelings, such as emotional consists of three basic elements— as sight and taste, responses, and mental sensations, feelings, and images— emotions, and mental that combine to form experience imagery. images such as memories or dreams. Structuralists 8 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 8 9/21/18 7:41 AM  believed that the mind functions hungry. But what does the by combining objective and sub- WILLIAM JAMES rat think when it is learn- jective elements of experience. William James wrote ing to turn right? the first modern Does it seem absurd 1-2b FUNCTIONALISM psychology textbook to try to place yourself in in 1890. He wrote, “I the “mind” of a rat? So it Toward the end of the 19th wished, by treating Psychology like a seemed to John Broadus century, psychologist William natural science, to Watson (1878–1958), the James (1842–1910) became a help her become founder of American major figure in the development one.” behaviorism. Watson of psychology in the United was asked to con- States. He focused on the rela- sider the contents tion between conscious experience and behavior. He of a rat’s “mind” as argued, for example, that the stream of consciousness one of the requirements for his doctoral degree, which is fluid and continuous. Introspection convinced him he received from the University of Chicago in 1903. that experience cannot be broken down into objective Functionalism was the dominant view of psychology sensations and subjective feelings as the structuralists at the University of Chicago, and functionalists were maintained. concerned with the stream of consciousness as well as William James was a founder of the school of observable behavior. But Watson (1913) believed that functionalism, which focused on behavior as well as if psychology were to be a natural science, like physics the mind or consciousness. Functionalists looked at how or chemistry, it must limit itself to observable, measur- our experience helps us function more adaptively in our able events—that is, to behavior alone—hence the term environments—for example, how habits help us cope behaviorism. with common situations. (When eating with a spoon, we Behaviorism is the school of psychology that do not create an individual plan to bring each morsel of focuses on learning observable behavior. The term food to our mouths.) They also turned to the laboratory observable refers to behaviors that are observable by for direct observations as a way to supplement introspec- means of specialized instruments, such as heart rate, tion. Structuralists tended to ask, “What are the pieces blood pressure, and brain waves. These behaviors are that make up thinking and experience?” In contrast, public—they can be measured easily and different functionalists tended to ask, “How do behavior and men- observers would agree about their existence and features. tal processes help people adapt to the requirements of Given their focus on behavior, behaviorists define psy- their lives?” chology as the scientific study of behavior, not of behav- James was also influenced by Charles Darwin’s (1809– ior and mental processes. 1882) theory of evolution. Earlier in the 19th century, B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) also contributed to the British naturalist Darwin had argued that organ- behaviorism. He believed that organisms learn to isms with adaptive features—that is, the “fittest”—sur- behave in certain ways because they have been vive and reproduce. Functionalists adapted Darwin’s reinforced for doing so—that is, their behavior has a theory and proposed that adaptive behavior patterns are positive outcome. He demonstrated that laboratory ani- learned and maintained. Maladaptive behavior patterns mals can be trained to carry out behaviors through stra- tend to drop out, and only the fittest behavior patterns tegic use of reinforcers, survive. These adaptive actions tend to be repeated and such as food. He trained functionalism the school of become habits. James wrote that “habit is the enormous rats to turn in circles, psychology that emphasizes the uses flywheel of society.” Habit keeps the engine of civiliza- climb ladders, and push or functions of the mind rather than tion running. toys across the floor. the elements of experience Because Skinner demon- behaviorism the school of strated that remarkable psychology that defines psychology 1-2c BEHAVIORISM as the study of observable behavior combinations of behav- and studies relationships between Imagine you have placed a hungry rat in a maze. It iors could be taught by stimuli and responses meanders down a pathway that ends in a T. It can then means of reinforcement, turn left or right. If you consistently reward the rat many psychologists reinforcement a stimulus that follows a response and increases the with food for turning right at this point, it will learn adopted the view that, frequency of the response to turn right when it arrives there, at least when it is in principle, one could CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? 9 Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 9 9/21/18 7:41 AM  to structuralists, they claimed that we cannot explain Fig.1.2 THE POWER OF REINFORCEMENT human perceptions, emotions, or thought processes in terms of basic units. Perceptions are more than the sums of their parts: Gestalt psychologists saw our per- ceptions as wholes that give meaning to parts, as we see in Figure 1.3. Gestalt psychologists showed that we tend to perceive separate pieces of information as integrated wholes depending on the contexts in which they occur. In Figure 1.3A, the dots in the centers of the configura- tions are the same size, yet we may perceive them as Tom McHugh/Science Source being different in size because of their surroundings. The second symbol in each line in part B is identical, Fig.1.3 G ESTALT PSYCHOLOGY AND THE IMPORTANCE OF CONTEXT Behaviorists have shown that we can teach animals (and people) complex behaviors by first reinforcing approximations to the goal or target behavior. For example, we might first drop a food pellet into our feathered friend’s cage when she drops the star anywhere on the tray, and then demand closer tries before reinforcing her. With people, of course, we can reinforce desired behavior by saying things like “Good” and “That’s right,” or “You’re getting there.” A. Are the dots in the center of the configurations the same size? Why not take a ruler and measure them? explain complex human behavior in terms of thousands of instances of learning through reinforcement (see Figure 1.2). 1-2d GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY In the 1920s, another school of psychology— Gestalt psychology—was prominent in Germany. In the 1930s, B. Is the second symbol in each line the three founders of the school—Max Wertheimer the letter B or the number 13? (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967)—left Europe to escape the Nazi threat. They carried on their work in the United States, giving further impetus to the growing American ascendance in psychology. Gestalt psychologists focused on perception and how perception influences thinking and problem solv- C. Which of the gray squares ing. The German word Gestalt translates roughly to is brighter? “pattern” or “organized whole.” In contrast to behav- iorists, Gestalt psycholo- Gestalt psychologists have shown that we tend to gestalt psychology the school gists argued that we interpret objects and people according to their of psychology that emphasizes the cannot hope to under- context. You interpret somebody’s running toward tendency to organize perceptions stand human nature by you differently when you are in a dark alley or into wholes and to integrate separate watching a football game. Interpret the examples focusing only on overt stimuli into meaningful patterns shown above. behavior. In contrast 10 CHAPTER 1: What Is Psychology? Copyright 2020 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 41055_ch01_hr_002-029.indd 10 9/5/18 5:58 PM  but in the top row we may 1-2e PSYCHOANALYSIS perceive it as a B and in the SIGMUND FREUD Psychoanalysis is the name bottom row as the num- Sigmund Freud, the of both the theory of personal- ber 13. The symbol has founder of psychoanaly- sis, is the often the ity and the method of psycho- not changed, but its con- first person that therapy developed by Sigmund text has. The inner squares comes to mind Freud (1856–1939). As a in part C are equally when people are asked to name a theory of personality, psy- bright, but they do not psychologist. choanalysis proposes that appear so because of their much of our lives is gov- contrasting backgrounds. erned by unconscious ideas Gestalt psychologists and impulses that originate in believed that learning could be active and purposeful, childhood conflicts. As a method of psychotherapy, not merely responsive and mechanical as in Watson’s psychoanalysis aims to help patients gain insight into and Skinner’s experiments. They demonstrated that their conflicts and to find socially acceptable ways of much learning, especially in problem solving, is accom- expressing wishes and gratifying needs. We’ll discuss plished by insight, not by mechanical repetition. psychoanalysis in more depth in Chapter 10. Consider Köhler’s classic research with chimpan- zees, as shown in Figure 1.4. At first, the chimp is unsuccessful in reaching bananas suspended from the ceiling. Then it suddenly stacks the boxes and climbs 1-3 CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES up to reach the bananas. It seems the chimp has expe- IN PSYCHOLOGY rienced a sudden reorganization of the mental elements of the problem—that is, he has had a “flash of insight.” Today, we no longer find psychologists who describe Köhler’s findings suggest that we often manipulate the themselves as structuralists or functionalists. Although elements of problems until we group them in such a way the school of Gestalt psychology gave birth to current that we can reach a goal. The manipulations may take research approaches in perception and problem solv- quite some time as mental trial and error proceeds. But ing, few would label themselves Gestalt psychologists. once the proper grouping has been found, we seem to But we do find Gestalt therapists who focus on help- perceive it all of a sudden. ing clients integrate conflicting parts of their personal- ity (making themselves “whole”). The numbers Fig.1.4 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: SOME INSIGHT INTO INSIGHT of orthodox behavior- ists and psychoanalysts have been declining (Robins et al., 1999). Many contemporary psychologists in the behaviorist tradition look on themselves as social cognitive theo- rists, who see much of human learning as intentional rather than mechanical. psychoanalysis the school of psychology that Have you ever had an “Aha” experience? The chimpanzee from Köhler’s research is shown here emphasizes the importance having just such an experience. At first, it cannot reach the bananas hanging from the ceiling. of unconscious motives and After some time has passed, it has an apparent “flash of insight” and rapidly piles the boxes on conflicts as determinants of top of one another to reach the fruit. human behavior