Prologue Lesson 1 The Legacy of Ancient Greece & Rome PDF

1 The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY The Representation and citizen...

1 The Legacy of Ancient Greece and Rome MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES POWER AND AUTHORITY The Representation and citizen government direct Greeks developed democracy, participation are important monarchy democracy and the Romans added features of democratic aristocracy republic representative government. governments around the world. oligarchy senate democracy SETTING THE STAGE Throughout history, people have recognized the need for a system for exercising authority and control in their society. Small bands of 1 people often did not need a formal organization. Councils of elders, for example, worked together to control a group. However, most people in larger groups lived under rulers, such as chieftains, kings, or pharaohs, who often had total power. Over the course of thousands of years, people began to believe that even in large groups they could govern themselves without a powerful ruler. Athens Builds a Limited Democracy About 2000 B.C., the Greeks established cities in the small fertile valleys along 2 Greece’s rocky coast. Each city-state had its own government, a system for TAKING NOTES controlling the society. Use the graphic organizer The Greek city-states adopted many styles of government. In some, a single online to take notes person called a king or monarch ruled in a government called a monarchy. on the contributions of Greece and Rome to Others adopted an aristocracy (AR uh STAHK ruh see), a government ruled by democracy. 3 a small group of noble, land-owning families. Later, as trade expanded, a new class of wealthy merchants emerged in some cities. Sometimes these groups took power or shared it with the nobility. They formed an oligarchy, a government ruled by a few powerful people. Ancient Greek civilization claims the distinction of developing the first 4 democracy in a country. In fact, the word democracy, meaning “rule of the people,” comes from the Greek words demos, meaning “people,” and kratos, meaning “power.” Building Democracy Athens was the largest and most powerful city-state to emerge in Greece. In Athens, citizens participated in governmental decision 5 making. Citizens were adult male residents who enjoyed certain rights and responsibilities. Each year, an assembly of citizens elected three nobles to rule the city-state. After a year of service, the nobles became part of a larger council of advisers. Around 600 B.C., Athens suffered severe economic problems. In order to pay their debts, poor farmers pledged part of their crops to wealthy landowners. 6 They later pledged their land. Then, they sold themselves into slavery and were not able to leave the land. Eventually, a strong leader stepped in to deal with the political and economic crisis. The Rise of Democratic Ideas 5  Government Current Forms of World Governments CURRENT WORLD GOVERNMENTS Every society must create ways to regulate the behaviors of its members. Government consists of the people and institutions with the authority to Traditional Protectorates Monarchies (countries under the establish and enforce rules for society. The rules are designed to keep order 7 5.2% protection of others) 1% within the society, to promote the behaviors that the society approves of, and Limited Democracies to protect the society from outside dangers. The government has the authority 8.3% to administer punishments if the rules are broken. Different societies have forms of government that may feature different types of leaders, lawmakers, and enforcers, such as police or the military. 8 Democracies 62% Major Forms of Government Authoritarian/ Totalitarian Regimes (often one-party states Monarchy Aristocracy or dictatorships) 23.4% State ruled by a king State ruled by nobility Rule is hereditary Rule is hereditary and based on family ties, social rank, wealth Democracy Facts Some rulers claim divine right Social status and wealth Theoretically, 40,000 people support rulers’ authority could attend the Greek 9 Assembly. In practice, about 6,000 people attended. Oligarchy Direct Democracy In 1215, King John of England granted the Magna State ruled by a small State ruled by its citizens Carta, which largely group of citizens Rule is based on citizenship influenced subsequent Rule is based on wealth democratic thought. Majority rule decides vote or ability In the 1970s, there were 40 Ruling group controls military democratic governments worldwide. In 2002, over 120 established and emerging One Early Democracy: democracies met to discuss The Igbo People their common issues. Igbo The Igbo (IHG boh) people—also Source: adapted from Democracy's Century, called Ibo—of southern Nigeria in Freedom House online (2003) MALI Africa practiced a form of NIGER democracy as early as the ninth 10 century. Igbo village government Niamey CHAD was made up of a council of BURKINA FASO N'Djamena elders and a village assembly. In the council, any adult male could NIGERIA take part in discussion, although BENIN GHANA Abuja TOGO the elders made the final decisions. In the assembly, Accra Lomé everyone—young or old, rich or CAMEROON poor—had the right to speak. This 1. Categorizing In which forms of Yaoundé practice encouraged a spirit of government is rule based on wealth EQUATORIAL GUINEA equality among the Igbo. or property ownership? Igbo lands GABON See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R9. 2. Hypothesizing How might the mass media in modern life help make democracy an achievable form RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for more on forms of government. of government? 6 Prologue  Reforms of Solon In 594 B.C., Solon (SO luhn), a respected 11 statesman, passed a law outlawing slavery based on debt and canceled the farmers’ debts. This simple act enabled Athens to avoid revolution or civil war. Solon continued his policies of political reform. He estab- lished four classes of citizenship based on wealth rather than heredity. Only citizens of the three higher classes were able to 12 hold public office. Yet, even the lowest class of citizens could vote in the assembly. All free adult males were citizens. Solon also created a new Council of Four Hundred. This body prepared business for the already existing council. Solon also introduced the legal concept that any citizen could bring charges against wrongdoers. Although these acts increased participation in govern- ment, Athens was still limited as a democracy. Only citizens 13 Solon could participate in government, and only about one-tenth of 630?–560? B.C. the population were citizens at the time. Athenian law Solon is known as one of the Seven denied citizenship to women, slaves, and foreign residents. Wise Men of Greece. Solon began a Slaves formed about one-third of the Athenian population. series of political reforms that greatly increased citizen participation in Cleisthenes Enacts More Reforms Beginning in 508 B.C., the Athenian leader Cleisthenes (KLYS thuh neez) intro- 15 Athenian government. He said that he “stood with a strong shield before 14 duced further reforms. Because of his reforms, Cleisthenes is both parties [the common people generally regarded as the founder of democracy in Athens. and the powerful] and allowed He worked to make Athens a full democracy by reorganizing neither to win an unfair victory.” His the assembly to balance the power of the rich and poor. He reforms, unfortunately, did not please either the wealthy or the poor. also increased the power of the assembly by allowing all cit- Solon left Athens for ten years to izens to submit laws for debate and passage. Cleisthenes travel. He spent that period warning then created the Council of Five Hundred. people wherever he traveled against Summarizing The Council proposed laws and counseled the assembly. rulers who would not uphold Why is 16 Council members were chosen at random from among the his reforms. Cleisthenes gener- ally considered the citizens. These reforms allowed Athenian citizens to partici- founder of Athenian pate in a limited democracy. However, still only one-fifth democracy? of Athenian residents were actual citizens. RESEARCH WEB LINKS Go online for more on Solon. Greek Democracy Changes From 490 to 479 B.C., the Greeks fought Persian invaders who were attempting to 17 conquer Greece. The Greek city-states fought side by side as allies and defeated the Persian forces. The Athenians maintained democracy during the Persian Wars by holding pub- lic debates about how to defend their city. After Persia’s defeat, Athens continued 18 to develop democracy. A wise and able statesman named Pericles led Athens for 32 years, from 461 to 429 B.C. Pericles Strengthens Democracy Pericles strengthened Greek democracy by increasing the number of paid public officials and by paying jurors. This enabled poorer citizens to participate in the government. Through greater citizen participa- 19 tion, Athens evolved into a direct democracy. This is a form of government in which citizens rule and make laws directly rather than through representatives. In Athens, more citizens were actively involved in government than in any other city- state. In a speech, Pericles expressed his great pride in Athenian democracy when The Rise of Democratic Ideas 7  19-C he said, “Our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people.” Democracy ended in Greece after a war between the two strongest city-states, 20 Athens and Sparta. Macedonia, a nearby state, invaded Greece and defeated the weakened city-states. Greek Philosophers Use Reason During the fourth century b.c. in Athens, several great thinkers appeared. They used logic and reason to investigate the nature of the 21 universe, human society, and morality. These Greek thinkers based their philosophy on the following assumptions: (1) The universe (land, sky, and sea) is put together in an orderly way and is subject to absolute and unchanging laws; and (2) people can understand these laws through logic and reason. The Greeks’ respect for human intel- ligence and the power of reason had allowed the ideas of democracy to flourish. The first of these great philosophers was Socrates (SAHK ruh teez). He encour- aged his students to examine their most closely held beliefs. He used a question- 22 and-answer approach that became known as the Socratic method. Socrates’ greatest pupil was Plato (PLAY toh). In his famous work The Republic, Plato set forth his vision of a perfectly governed society. He wanted society governed not by the rich- est and most powerful but by the wisest, whom he called philosopher-kings. P r i m ar y S o ur c e Until philosophers are kings, or the kings and princes of this world have the spirit and Analyzing power of philosophy, and political greatness and wisdom meet in one, and those Primary Sources commoner natures who pursue either to the exclusion of the other are compelled to What does stand aside, cities will never have rest from their evils, no, nor the human race. Plato believe needs to happen to bring PLATO, The Republic peace and harmony to cities and to the Plato’s student Aristotle (AR ih staht uhl) examined the nature of the world human race? 23 and of human belief, thought, and knowledge. In Politics, he wrote, “Man is by nature a political animal; it is his nature to live in a state.” Legacy of Greece Greece set lasting standards in government and philosophy. The Greeks used reason and intelligence to discover patterns and explanations of 24 the world that they called natural laws. The Greeks did not wish to be subject to authoritarian rulers. So they developed direct democracy in order that citizens could actively participate in political decisions. They also were the first to develop three branches of government—a legislative branch to pass laws, an executive branch to carry out the laws, and a judicial branch to settle disputes about the laws. (The chart below compares democracy in ancient Athens and in the United States.) Athenian and United States Democracy Athenian Democracy Both U.S. Democracy Citizens: male; at least 18 P  olitical power Citizens: born in United years old; with citizen parents exercised by citizens States or completed Laws voted on and T hree branches of citizenship process 25 proposed directly by government Representatives elected to assembly of all citizens L egislative branch propose and vote on laws Leader chosen by lot passes laws Elected president Executive branch: a council E  xecutive branch Executive branch made up of of 500 men carries out laws elected and appointed officials Juries varied in size J udicial branch Juries composed of 12 jurors No attorneys; no appeals; conducts trials Defendants and plaintiffs have one-day trials with paid jurors attorneys; long appeals process 8 Prologue  Juries in Athens Jury duty was one of the most important civic functions 26 of a citizen of Athens. Juries ranged in size from at least 201 to as many as 2,500 men. (Athenian women were not allowed to serve as jurors.) The jurors would hear both sides of a legal case. Then they would render their verdict by casting bronze ballots in a large ballot box. ▲ Selecting a Jury Each potential juror was given a bronze ticket inscribed with his name. After the tickets had been 27 placed in a basket, jurors were randomly selected.   Making a Decision ▲ These round disks are ballots. A hollow ballot was cast for a guilty vote, while a solid ballot indicated a vote in favor 28 of the defendant. (The detail from a Greek drinking cup solid ballot pictured above shows ballots being cast in a ballot box.) Deciding on ▲ hollow ballot a Punishment Citizens could vote to ostracize, or banish, a leader from Athens for ten years 29 to prevent a person from gaining too much power. The person’s name was inscribed on a pottery fragment called an ostrakon. This one bears the name of Pericles. Skillbuilder: Interpreting Visual Sources 1. Comparing and Contrasting In what ways are the jury practices of Athens similar to those of the United States? How are they different? 2. Forming and Supporting Opinions What advantages or disadvantages ballot box do you see in the number of jurors on an Athenian jury? The Rise of Democratic Ideas 9  Rome Develops a Republic While Greece was in decline, a new civilization to the west was developing. From 30 about 1000 to 500 B.C., the earliest Romans—the Latins—battled with Greeks and Etruscans for control of the Italian peninsula. The Romans were the victors. From Kingdom to Republic Beginning about 600 B.C., a series of kings ruled Rome. Then, in 509 B.C., a group of Roman aristocrats overthrew a harsh king. They 31 set up a new government, calling it a republic. A republic is a form of government in which power rests with citizens who have the right to elect the leaders who make governmental decisions. It is an indirect democracy, in contrast to the direct democ- racy in which all citizens participate directly in the government. In Rome, as in Contrasting Greece, citizenship with voting rights was granted only to free-born males. How does an In the early republic, two groups struggled for power. The patricians were aristo- indirect democracy differ from a direct 32 cratic landowners who held most of the power. The plebeians were common farm- democracy? ers, artisans, and merchants. The patricians inherited their power and social status. They claimed that their ancestry gave them the authority to make laws for Rome and its people. The plebeians were citizens of Rome with the right to vote. But they were barred by law from holding most important government positions. In time, plebeian pressure on the patricians gained them political power. Twelve Tables An important victory for the plebeians was forcing creation of a written law code. With laws unwritten, patrician officials often interpreted the law to suit them- 33 selves. In 451 B.C., a group of ten officials began writing down Rome’s laws. They had the laws carved on 12 tables, or tablets, and publicly displayed. The Twelve Tables estab- lished the idea that all free citizens had the right to protec- tion of the law and that laws would be fairly administered. Republican Government Like the Athenians, the Romans had established a government with separate branches. Two Justinian officials called consuls commanded the army and directed 482–565 the government. Their term of office was only one year. The 34 Justinian believed that “imperial majesty should not only be adorned legislative branch was made up of a senate and two assem- with military might but also graced blies. Patricians made up the senate. It controlled foreign 36 with laws, so that in times of peace and financial policies and advised the consuls. The two and war alike the state may be assemblies included other classes of citizens. In times of governed aright.” crisis, the republic also provided for a dictator, a leader who To regulate the Byzantine Empire, Justinian set up a panel of legal had absolute power to make laws and command the army. experts to comb through hundreds of The dictator was limited to a six-month term. 37 years of Roman law and opinion. The For hundreds of years after the founding of the republic, panel’s task was to create a single, Rome expanded its territories through conquest and trade. 35 uniform legal code for Justinian’s But expansion created problems. For decades, Rome alter- “New Rome.” nated between the chaos of civil war and the authoritarian The Justinian Code has had a rule of a series of dictators. Eventually, the republic col- 38 profound impact on the law of most Western countries. lapsed. In 27 B.C., Rome came under the rule of an emperor. Roman Law INTERNET ACTIVITY Go online to Rome had become a great power not only by conquering create a table comparing some of Justinian's laws with similar ones in other lands but also by bringing the conquered peoples into 39 the United States. its system. The Romans tried to create a system of laws that could be applied throughout the Roman Empire. Like the 10 Prologue  Greeks, they believed that laws should be based on principles of reason and justice and should protect citizens and their property. This idea applied to all people regardless of their nationality. It had a great influence on the development of democracy throughout the Western world. Some important principles of Roman law were 30-C All citizens had the right to equal treatment under the law. A person was considered innocent until proven guilty. The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused. Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside. A Written Legal Code Another major characteristic of Roman govern- ment was its regard for written law as exemplified by the creation of the Twelve ▲ A coin from 137 b.c. shows a Tables in 451 b.c. Nearly 1,000 years later, in a.d. 528, Emperor Justinian ordered 31 Roman citizen the compilation of all Roman laws since the earlier code. After its completion, this taking part in new code consisted of four works. The Code contained nearly 5,000 Roman laws. the democratic The Digest was a summary of legal opinions. The Institutes served as a textbook for process by voting. law students. The Novellae contained laws passed after 534. The Code of Justinian later became a guide on legal matters throughout Western Europe. Written laws helped establish the idea of “a government of laws, not of men,” in which even rul- ers and other powerful persons could be held accountable for their actions. Recognizing Legacy of Rome Rome gave the world the idea of a republic. Rome also adopted Effects from the Greeks the notion that an individual is a citizen in a state rather than the How did Rome subject of a ruler. Perhaps Rome’s greatest and most lasting legacy was its written 32 influence the development of legal code and the idea that this code should be applied equally and impartially to democracy in the all citizens. Rome preserved and added to Greece’s idea of democracy and passed Western world? on the early democratic tradition to civilizations that followed. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. government monarchy aristocracy oligarchy democracy direct democracy republic senate USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which contribution, shown on 3. How does an aristocracy differ 6. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS How do the steps taken by your web diagram, do you from an oligarchy? leaders of Athens reflect a turn toward democracy? think had the greatest impact 4. What steps did Cleisthenes 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Was Athenian on the modern world? take to strengthen democracy democracy under Pericles truly a democracy? Explain. in Athens? 8. SYNTHESIZING Which characteristic of the government Greece Rome 5. What are the four basic under the Roman Republic had the greatest impact on principles of Roman law? the democratic tradition? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY POWER AND AUTHORITY Write a Democracy dialogue between a Roman citizen and a Greek citizen each arguing that their style of democracy is a better form of government. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING AN ORAL REPORT New England town meetings are similar to the kind of democracy practiced in Ancient Greece. Research New England town meetings and prepare an oral report on your findings. The Rise of Democratic Ideas 11