Project Leadership Notes.pdf

PROJECT LEADERSHIP Introduction  Management is not the same as leadership o Management:  The ability to get the job done. o Leadership:  Having a vison, sharing the vision with the team, and then setting the course to achieve the vi...

PROJECT LEADERSHIP Introduction  Management is not the same as leadership o Management:  The ability to get the job done. o Leadership:  Having a vison, sharing the vision with the team, and then setting the course to achieve the vision.  Today’s projects require PM leadership to achieve success.  Certifications and training should be one part of the hiring decision making process, not the main driver.  PM success is contingent on the right mix of behaviours and skills. Project Management Leadership  The combination of both management and leadership skills with a risk-smart attitude and accountability.  The performance of a PM is contingent on the use of risk and accountability. Project Management Leadership Model Four Key Components:  PM Expertise  Core Leadership Skills  Risk-Smart Attitude  Accountability-Based Behaviour Project Manager Expertise  Project Managers: o Plan o Manage o Handle PM details  PM expertise is about having the skills to develop a plan and manage the plan. o Getting things done and delivering results.  Meeting milestones and deadlines.   Involves a structural process.  A common goal of project managers. o The successful delivery of a project. Core Leadership Skills  Having a vision and being able to motivate individuals to share and act on that vision.  Establishing direction and inspiring others to follow that direction.  The utilization of people skills to turn vision into reality.  Navigating through change and adopting a forward-thinking position.  Change demands leadership.  People follow leaders because ‘they want to’ not because ‘they have to’.  PM leaders earn trust and confidence. Risk-Smart Attitude  Is about constantly being aware of threats or opportunities around you. o Risk may also be opportunities and need to be recognized.  Traditionally, risk management has been a way to deal with threats but can also be a powerful way to identify opportunities.  RS decisions o er a good understanding of the decision implications ahead of time.  RS attitude is about awareness o Setting yourself up for success at the onset of a project.  RS is not being averse to risk; it is a balancing act: o Being aware of risks and understanding how others view the risks. Accountability-Based Behaviour  A willingness to accept responsibility for something you have done or are supposed to do.  Being responsible does not make you accountable.  Accountability demonstrates a belief in oneself so that others will believe in you.  Accountability is the foundation for PM leadership. o A key ingredient for implementing change. o Setting and meeting expectations – accepting the consequence for not meeting those expectations. A Shift Toward Leadership  Organizations need to deliver high quality products/projects/services at competitive prices. o Competition is critical to survival.  Challenges of project managers include: o Tighter budgets o Shorter implementation schedules on traditional projects o Managing global teams, which may include conflicting cultures. o Tools and software applications. o Projects’ impact on end-users. o Communication demands. o Pressure for immediate results/reports.  Many PMs are feeling overwhelmed and struggling to keep up with stakeholder demands. What is PM Expertise?  The basis of credibility of a person who is perceived to be knowledgeable in PM.  Knowledge is formed through: o Education o Training o Experience  Skills vary by industry but are bound by common attributes.  Maintaining a positive reputation.  People will want to work with you, as opposed to having to work with you. Why is PM Expertise Important?  Poorly managed projects are not successful and result in: o Increased costs. o Schedule delays. o Overall barriers. o Disappointed stakeholders.  PMs need a clear understanding of how project areas integrate and interact with each other.  Bad project management erodes the profit margin of any organization. Project Management Attributes PM Leadership Model includes Eleven Attributes relevant for all PMs.  To understand the Big Picture, one must have an ability to: o Balance an understanding of the big picture – which is the overall aim of the project, with smaller tasks that comprise the project. o Demonstrate how the project aligns with the organizational strategy. o Understand customer and stakeholder priorities. o Constitute what project results are.  Recognize a Good Requirement from a Bad One. o Poorly written project requirements represent risk. o Potential scope creep in project changes. o Poor documentation and communication. o Important to properly frame and articulate project requirements along the way.  Be Able to Analyze and Break Down Problems. o Successful project problem management comes from the ability break it down, so stakeholders understand. o If you cannot break it down properly, you cannot plan for it.  Explain the problem.  Plan.  Execute and solve.  Know How to Plan: o Planning is not scheduling. o Scheduling comes after planning. o Seeing the big picture, developing a credible approach, executing, and completing the project successfully. o Identifying the tasks that you need to complete the project. o Acknowledging sequencing and recognizing interdependencies.  Excel at Scheduling. o Important to be aware of scheduling basic guidelines, and best practices. o Schedules should include risk simulation.  Have a Firm Grip on Your Financials. o Managing projects is all about managing money. o Understand project costs and assumptions. o Be aware of:  Markups  Cost calculation.  Sell price.  Gross margin.  Fees.  Understand Your Supply Chain o SCM represents all activities associated with moving goods from the raw material stage to the final product state and to the end user. o Includes:   Production.  Supply.  Inventory.  Transportation.  Management.  Know How to Negotiate. o Resources. o Funding budgets. o Facility space. o Subcontractors. o Vendors. o Suppliers. o Customers. o Management.  Manage Your Time E ectively. o Timelines are Impacted through:  Pressures.  Late suppliers.  Management interference.  Other people not adhering to timelines. o Consider integrating daily planning and prioritization. o E ective planning does not require micromanagement of team members – it empowers team members to do their work.  Reach Out. o E ective PMs ask for advice when needed.  Subject matter experts.  Organization – navigators.  Stakeholders.  Communicate with Clarity. o Identify the information you want to give and that which you want to receive. o Credibility is often correlated with clear communication. o Careful with non-verbal communication. o Clarity gains trust and confidence. o Clarity means “saying the right things to the right people at the right time”. o Lack of clarity leads to mismanagement. o Integrate proper pace, tone, and choice of words. E ective Communication in PM  Communication is an essential process in our day-to-day life, and the entire world revolves around it.  Communication is exchanging information from one point of the project to the other point in an e icient manner.   Communication in project management is the “Project-Life Blood” as everything in a project is based on how e iciently it is performed.  Communication is an essential tool in the field of project management. Understanding the Communication Process To understand the communication process, project managers must understand all the relevant factors.  The communication process requires a sender and receiver.  The communication process requires a medium to communicate the content of a message.  The communication process requires a message. The message can take many di erent forms, usually in hard or soft format.  The communication process requires feedback between the sender and receiver. Communication Problems  How do I interact e ectively with people in my team?  Do I give a particular person an opportunity to work on my team?  How will these people from di erent races interact on the project?  What is the best way to handle communication among the team who happens to come from di erent countries.  How do I resolve cross-cultural conflict among them? Proposed Solution for Project Managers  PMs spend time in understanding about the culture of each and every member of their team.  Attendance of Intercultural workshops, especially those that are geared toward conflict resolution, is important for all PMs in order to better understand the composition of people within their organization.  Do not expect everybody to pronounce things the same way you do.  Be aware of the possibility to learn from each other and to enrich life through cultural contact.  Cross-cultural training seeks to give project managers the communication tools with which to manage the di erences that result from cultural di erences.  PMs should become a cultural coach: Share your experiences and listen. The Team Concept  Leadership is the ability to harness and channel the power of the group. Leadership requires:  Understanding of group behavior.  Ability to tap the constructive power of teams. Excellent Teams Fully functioning groups and teams possess 12 key characteristics:  Clear mission  Criticism is issue-oriented and never  Informal atmosphere personal  Lots of discussion  Consensus is the form  Active listening  E ective leadership  Trust and openness  Clarity of assignment  Disagreement is OK  Shared values and norms of behavior  Commitment Positive verses Negative Group Member Roles Successful groups depend on:  Individuals and what they choose to do.  The example and direction of leaders.  Modeling and reinforcing positive versus negative group member roles. Roles That Build High-Performance Groups  Encourager: Helps people make contributions to fulfill their potential.  Clarifier: Creates order out of chaos and replaces confusion with clarity.  Harmonizer: Brings together opposite points of view.  Ideas generator: Suggests ideas that others do not.  Ignition key: Orchestrates and facilitates the group’s work.  Standard setter: Possesses knowledge and skills deemed important by the group.  Detailed specialist: Searches for errors and commissions and keeps the group on red alert. Roles That Reduce Group Success  Ego tripper: Interrupts others, launches into long monologues, and is overly dogmatic.  Negative artist: Rejects all ideas suggested by others, takes a negative attitude on issues, argues unnecessarily, and refuses to cooperate.  Above-it-all person: Withdraws from the group and its activities by being aloof, indi erent, and excessively formal.  Aggressor: Attacks and blames others and shows anger or irritation against the group or individuals.  Jokester: Fools around most of the time and distracts the group from its business just to get a laugh.  Avoider: Does anything to avoid controversy or confrontation and is dedicated to personal security and self-preservation.  Power victim: Seeks negative attention and draws time and energy from the group. Dealing with Problem Behavior  Taking it over in a calm and patient way after individual has bad behavior.  Reporting observations uncritically.  Pointing out that it is recognized that the person wants to be successful but to reach that goal, he or she must take others into account.  Reporting how it made one feel and how others must feel if the behavior is irritating.  Asking why the person behaves as he or she does.  Avoiding counterattack if the person challenges, philosophizes, defends, or tries to debate one’s observations.  Helping the person understand that cooperating with others can be rewarding.  Confronting the person with the facts and consequences of the person’s negative behavior if he or she is close-minded.  Letting the person know that his or her behavior is unacceptable and will not be tolerated if he or she does not respond to one’s e orts. Design Teams for Success  Employees often work in task-focused teams of five to eight individuals.  E ective teams often have “slices of genius” from di erent cultures and work areas, gaining the benefits of synergy to generate creative business solutions.  Team size varies drastically depending on the environment. o Amazon uses the “two-pizza rule” – if two pizzas can’t feed a team, it is too large. o Microsoft’s ideal team size for software development is eight. Problem-Solving Styles Problem solving has four elements  E: Having experiences  R: Reflecting on results  T: Building theories  A: Taking action A Versatile Style of Problem Solving  Individuals are equally comfortable with each step of the problem-solving cycle.  Individuals do not have structural strengths or weaknesses resulting from style preference. The Charles Darwin Problem-Solving Style  Style: Basic researcher who loves the discovery process.  Most problem-solving e orts: Made between E and R  Strengths: Observing, recording facts, and identifying alternatives.  Interpreting the chart: The longest line denotes the problem-solving. The Albert Einstein Problem-Solving Style  Style: Theoretical scientist  Most problem-solving e orts: Made between T and R.  Nature of e orts: Moving into the world of theory while being in the mode of reflecting.  Strengths: Abstract conceptualization and blue-sky thinking.  Interpreting the chart: The longest line denotes the problem-solving style. The Socrate Problem-Solving Style  Style: Applied scientist  Most problem-solving e orts: Made between T and A.  Nature of e orts: Moving from a reflective to an active orientation.  Strength: Translating ideas so they can be put into action.  Interpreting the chart: The longest line denotes the problem-solving style. The Henry Ford Problem-Solving Style  Style: Functional practitioner  Most problem-solving e orts: Made between E and A.  Feature: Never-ending cycle.  Strengths: Goal orientation and achievement.  Interpreting the chart: The longest line denotes the problem-solving style. Points to Remember Concerning Problem-Solving Styles  Steps in problem solving include having experiences, reflecting on results, building theories, and taking action. o Having a preference for more than one style of problem solving is possible. o Tolerance of di erences is required when people with di erent styles of problem solving live or work together. o Most people have di iculty changing their problem-solving styles. o Organizations or groups need all four styles of problem solving. Leader as Team Builder  Teamwork is essential for group success.  Leaders in every endeavor know the power of the team concept for achieving results.  E ective leaders value teamwork as a virtue, and they demonstrate this by their own e orts as team builders and champions of the group. “The secret is to work less as individuals and more as a team. As a coach, I play not my eleven best, but my best eleven.” – Coach Knute Rockne Hiring and Developing Winners Leaders must:  Recruit and develop team members who can perform successfully.  Commit to excellence and model this ideal personally.  Hire the best talent available and train and develop all other personnel.  Consider the interests of all, knowing e ective performance is required.  Be cautious about labelling people based on their quality. How to Create a High-Performance Team  E ective leaders understand that individual competence will not result in a high- performance team.  An essential component is the leader’s ability to create a spirit of cooperation and a “one- team” attitude.  Thomas Edison’s approach was to assemble small teams of people who possessed high levels of knowledge and character, a desire to work, and a commitment to excellence.  Creating a spirit of cooperation and a one-team attitude.  Showing enthusiasm for the work of the group.  Making timely decisions based on agreed-upon goals.  Promoting open-mindedness, innovation, and creativity by personal example and a conducive work climate.  Admitting mistakes and uncertainties, modeling honesty as a virtue.  Being flexible in using a variety of tactics and strategies to achieve success.  Having persistence and lasting power.  Giving credit to others for the team’s accomplishments, meeting people’s needs for appreciation and recognition.  Keeping people informed about progress and problems.  Keeping promises and following through on commitments.  Training for success.  Putting others first and self-last. Characteristics of a Successful Team  Clear, elevating goal.  Results-driven structure.  Competent team members.  Unified commitment.  Collaborative climate.  Standards of excellence.  External support and recognition.  Principled leadership. Virtual Teams  Virtual teams work best with structured tasks requiring only moderate levels of task interdependence. Five requirements for global trends to work include:  Senior management leadership support.  E ective use of communication technology.   An organization structure that supports global operations.  Trust and respect among team members.  Ability to capitalize on the strength of diverse cultures, languages, and people. Unit 2 Project Plan A project plan is a series of formal documents that define the execution and control stages of a project. The plan includes considerations for risk management, resource management and communications, while also addressing scope, cost, and schedule baselines. What is Project Monitoring Project Monitoring refers to the process of keeping track of all project-related metrics, including team performance and task duration, identifying potential problems and taking corrective actions necessary to ensure that the project is within scope, on budget, and meets the specified deadlines. To put it simply, project monitoring is overseeing all tasks and keeping an eye on project activities to make sure you are implementing the project as planned. It is important to monitor projects diligently and use the data you gathered to come up with intelligent decisions. Here are some questions answered through project monitoring.  Are tasks being carried out as planned?  Are there any unforeseen consequences that arise as a result of these tasks?  How is your team performing at a given period of time?  What are the elements of the project that needs changing?  What is the impact of these changes?  Will these actions lead you to your expected results? Corrective Action-Project Management Any action taken to ensure that the product of the projects meets the requirements of the project as described in the scope document.  Step 1: Solve the simple stu – embrace the value of Risk Management.  Step 2: Know how to solve the di icult stu – a repeatable Problem-Solving Framework.  Step 3: Do not freak out – focus on the right things at the right time.  Taking corrective action is a critical skill set for delivering successful project outcomes.  Having a plan for when the original plan does not work is the cornerstone to project success.   Successful PMs must have the skills and abilities to tackle significant project problems. Change Management Embracing Change  Change is inevitable.  PMs need to utilize new project management developments.  The best PMs will be those that recognize change and embrace it, while not forgetting the basics of project management. “Be the change that you wish to see in the world”. – Mahatma Gandhi “The world as we have created it is a process of our thinking. It cannot be changed without changing our thinking”. – Albert Einstein Breaking Habits  Habits are things we do without really thinking about why we do them.  Identify bad habits and proactively seek to change those.  PM bad habits may include: o Micromanagement. o Failure to follow established processes and procedures. o Avoiding conflict. o Failure to prioritize. o Avoiding accountability. International Business Management  To be successful today, we need to excel in international business management.  International business managers help in finding new markets for company products and services.  Managers are responsible for recruiting and hiring across the globe.  Make global markets profitable for the company. International Project Structure  A project organization is a structure that facilitates the coordination and implementation of project activities.  The international structure ensures the attention of the top management towards developing a holistic and unified approach to international operations.  One of the main objectives of the structure is to reduce uncertainty and confusion that typically occurs at the project initiation phase.  The structure defines the relationships among members of the project management and the relationships with the external environment. Evolution versus Revolution  Today, change is viewed as a constant reality for modern organizations – we are always in a state of change.  Revolutionary change may be a merger or a major occurrence within your organization.  Evolution is the relentless nature of the pressure of change on your organization.  PMP o ers a disciplined approach to anticipate and manage revolution and evolutionary changes in a consistent, repeatable, and transparent way. Change Impacts People  The greatest constraint to change is people.  The ability of people to adapt to change may ultimately prove to be the limiting factor in the rate of business evolution.  Portfolio management o ers the process framework to communicate changes and re- establish the rules of the new future state. The Adaptation of Project Management in a Changing World  Defining the change objective.  Developing a strategy and plans to achieve that objective.  Creating a project management group to e ect the change.  Installing a control process to monitor progress.  Managing the project by implementing the above four steps. Project Stakeholders A person or organization that has an interest in the project, or who could be impacted by it. (PMBOK Guide).  Project occur to fulfill stakeholder’s requirement.   Project management is about managing stakeholders.  It is important to identify stakeholders at an early stage. Society and Government  Government Stakeholders  Public Stakeholders  NGO Stakeholders  International Stakeholders Identifying Project Stakeholders The process helps you identify project stakeholders. The following documents are important:  Project Charter  Contract Documents  Procurement Documents  OPA and EEF  Interview the Experts  Brainstorming Sessions (PMBOK Guide) PORTFOLIO Introduction  Portfolio: A case for carrying documents such as maps, photos, or drawings.  In a management context, a portfolio allows you to group a set of common subjects (for instance, products, or resources) so they can be collectively managed.  Portfolios are used to make change management decisions.  Comparisons and rankings of subjects within.  Based on supporting information such as: o Priorities o Risk factors o Cost o E ort o Schedule estimates Types of Portfolios Strategic Portfolios facilitate operational planning to guide the future direction of the organization.  Assessing current state of operations and change influencers.  Establishing objectives and strategies of the organization.  Allocating financial and resource capacities.  Measuring the resulting value created by these decisions. Investment Portfolios are specialized decision-supporting tools used to analyze, compare, and select potential opportunities.  Best value, lowest risk, greater alignment.  High-level guidance and constraints for trade-o decisions between funding requests and available capacities. Execution Portfolios are used to manage the tactical details of how projects, services, and the activities within them are planned and executed.  Including how resources are: o Assigned o Managed  Provides opportunities to organize and view data from common information sources.  O ers coordination of activities with other managers. Portfolio Benefits  Each portfolio provides a way to track changes through the lifecycle.  The ultimate benefit of portfolio management is to help create measurable value. Introduction Portfolio management o ers you the framework to formalize the relationship between your information structures and organizes them to manage change events. Portfolio Information Structures  Important to identify relationships between di erent levels of information structures. o Interdependencies exist between them.  Primary and Secondary Information o Primary Information (PI) used to make decisions includes:   Work  Money  People  Deliverables o Secondary Information (SI) includes Type, Priority, Status, Funding Category, Risk level, and so on. o PI should be simple and purposeful.  They provide basic content selection for defining portfolios and reporting at di erent levels.  Use SI to further condition and describe portfolio contents as needed. o Identifying Information Relationships  Identify relationships among levels.  An outcome of Portfolio Information. Organizing People  By Role and Skill Attributes o Role establishes the general functions an individual performs. o Skills denotes the specialized capabilities that an individual has in order to fulfill those functions. o Role options are more likely to have some basis in existing job descriptions and/or cost rate structures. o Skill catalog o ers a starting point for managers when identifying resource needs and selecting resources to assign.  By Resource Rate Attributes o It is useful to associate cost rates with members of the workforce. o Blended cost rates are the preferred approach in portfolio management.  By Other Resource Attributes o Primary work location. o Time zones. o Language skills. Money  Almost all portfolios include some form of financial data.  Improves quality and visibility of information.  Using strategic investment and execution portfolios demonstrates how money flows through the organization relative to your work and deliverables.  O ers ability to relate financial data with the mission, objectives, strategies, and tactics.  Can better understand costs and revenues associated with products/services.  Can be extended to develop demand-based portfolios.  O ers consistency in terminology and definitions. Globalization  Ability of any individual or company to compete, connect, exchange, or collaborate globally.  Allows new ideas and technology to flow freely around the globe, accelerating productivity growth, and allowing companies to be more competitive. Globalization and Human Resources  Cheap labour and plentiful resources, combined with ease of travel and communication, have created global labour markets.  Circulation of talent.  Enables employment opportunities. Technology  Changing the way businesses create and capture value, how and where we work, and how we interact and communicate.  Cloud and mobile computing.  Big data and machine learning.  Sensor and intelligent manufacturing.  Advance robotics and drones.  Clean-energy technologies.  Information and ideas are keys to creative economies.  Computers have taken over tasks like bookkeeping, clerical work, and repetitive production jobs.  Workers adjust their skills.  Entrepreneurs create opportunities based on the new technologies. Technology and Human Resources  HR professionals need to recognize collaborative technology as a key component for sta ing.  Technological systems include applications such as report, generation, succession planning, strategic planning, career planning, and evaluation of HR policies and practices. Sustainability  Ability to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.  Decision-makers should assess social and environmental risks and opportunities.  Triple bottom line: people, planet, and profit. Organizational Culture  System of shared norms, beliefs, values, and assumptions that bind people together.  Shared meanings.  Reflects the personality of the organization.  Member identity: employees identify with the organization.  Team emphasis: activities organize around groups.  Management focus: management decisions consider the e ect of outcomes on people.  Unit integration: degree to which departments encourage to collaborate.  Control: degree to which rules, policies, and direct supervision are used to oversee and control employee behaviour.  Risk tolerance: degree to which employees are encouraged to be aggressive, innovative and risk-seeking.  Reward criteria: degree to which rewards are given to employees based on their performance.  Conflict tolerance: degree to which employees are encouraged to air conflicts and criticisms openly.  Means versus end orientation: degree to which management focuses on outcomes rather than on techniques and processes used to achieve those results.  Open-systems focus: the degree to which the organization monitors and responds to change in the external environment. Global Markets and Human Resources  Create and maintain an optimal portfolio of resources inside as well as outside the organization.  Expansion of complex jobs that required flexibility, creativity and the ability to work well with people.  Transition from making a product to providing a service.  Outsourcing non-core activities.  Constant learning, critical thinking, and flexible hours. Using nonstandard employees, restructuring, and building flexibility into work schedules and rules. Human Resources Diversity and Inclusion Workplace diversity is understanding, accepting, and valuing di erences between people including those:  Of di erent races, ethnicities, genders, ages, religions, disabilities, and sexual orientations.   With di erences in education, personalities, skill sets, experiences, and knowledge basis. Inclusion Bersin by Deloitte defines “inclusion” as creating an environment in which people feel involved, respected, valued, and connected – and to which individuals bring their “authentic” selves (their ideas, backgrounds, and perspectives) to their work with colleagues and customers. Diversity and Inclusion Diversity and Inclusion is a company’s mission, strategies, and practices to support a diverse workplace and leverage the e ects of diversity to achieve a competitive business advantage. Companies that create diverse and inclusive work environments are more adaptable, creative, and become magnets that attract top talent. Diversity and Inclusion in the Canadian Workforce  Approximately one-half (49 percent) of Canadian organizations progresses beyond a “compliance” focus within the last five years.  Canadian leaders are putting relatively little investment into sta ing the diversity and inclusion function.  Most Canadian organizations are not holding leaders and managers accountable for diversity and inclusion outcomes.  While the majority of organizations track metrics, they fail to leverage those for accountability action, impact, and change. Virtual Organizations  Teams of specialists come together to work on a project and then disband when the project is finished.  Very popular in consulting, legal defense, and sponsored research.  They are multisite, multi-organizational, and dynamic. Virtual Workplace  Employees operate remotely.  Employees work anytime, anywhere, in real or in cyberspace.  Reduced real estate expenses.  Increased productivity.  Higher profits.   Improved customer service.  Access to global markets.  Environmental benefits drive their implementation. International Project Manager  Projects often traverse international boundaries.  Establishing positive professional working relationships with stakeholders from di erent countries/cultures might be challenging. Project managers must be able to “read and speak” the culture they are working in to develop strategies, plans, and responses that are likely to be understood and accepted.  Learn from a trusted in country stakeholder.  Identify and learn about cultural di erences and cultural norms ahead of time.  There are di erent tools to get insights, including: https://www/hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/australia,china/ https://www.humansynergistics.com/change-solutions/change-solutions-for- organizations/assessments-for-organizations/organization-culture-inventory Business Trends  Human resources expertise: people, organizations, the workplace and strategy.  Business acumen: ability to understand and apply information to contribute to the organization’s strategic plan.  Critical evaluation: ability to interpret information to make business decisions and recommendations.  Consultation: ability to provide guidance to organizational stakeholders.  Leadership and navigation: ability to direct and contribute to initiatives and processes within the organization.  Ethical practice: ability to integrate core values, integrity, and accountability throughput all organizational and business practices.  Communication: ability to e ectively exchange with stakeholders.  Relationship management: ability to manage interactions to provide service and to support the organization.  Global and cultural e ectiveness: ability to value and consider the perspective and backgrounds of all parties.