Practical Research 2 PDF

Practical Research 2 PRAS02A Research ¨ Researchers: o Virologist – someone who studies viral infections. o Physicist – developing new electronic devices. o Chemist – creating new materials. o Librarians, archaeologists ¨ Chapman (1979) – research means to investigate s...

Practical Research 2 PRAS02A Research ¨ Researchers: o Virologist – someone who studies viral infections. o Physicist – developing new electronic devices. o Chemist – creating new materials. o Librarians, archaeologists ¨ Chapman (1979) – research means to investigate something again. It is a process of searching for something to solve an existing problem. ¨ Williams (2007) – a systematic investigation or inquiry entailing collection of data, documentation of critical information, analysis, interpretation of information. ¨ O’Donnel (2012) – research can be also viewed as the formation of new knowledge and the employment of previous or existing knowledge into a new and creative way. Quantitative Research ¨ Aliaga and Gunderson (2000) o “Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in particular, statistics).” o Utilizes numbers and statistical analysis. o Ideal in studying phenomenon which must contend with the problems of measurement. o Traditional, positivist scientific method which refers to a general set of orderly and disciplined procedures to acquire information. o Utilizes deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world. Phenomenon ¨ Change, rise, decrease ¨ A peculiar incident that can happen anywhere, with any discipline or in any organization. ¨ Quantitative research attempts to measure relevant factors and variables attaching numeric values that express quantity. ¨ Analyzing numbers to answer a specific inquiry, usually used in descriptive and inferential statistics. Characteristics of Quantitative Research 1. Reliable and objective o Based on facts and evidence. o Unbiased, consistent = replicable. 2. Uses statistics to generalize finding o Result of the sample speaks for the entire population. 3. Reduces and restructures a complex problem to a limited number of variables o Manipulates the independent variable. 4. Looks at the connections between variables and establishes cause and effect relationships in highly controlled circumstances o Cause and effect of variables. 5. Tests theories or hypothesis o Tests theories or hypothesis (educated guess). 6. Assumes that the sample is representative of the population 1  7. Subjectivity of its methodology is a secondary concern 8. Deals with the details of the subject Advantages of Quantitative Research 1. Allows the researcher to measure and analyze the data to arrive at an objective answer to the problem. 2. The result is generally reliable since the study uses a big sample of the population. 3. Established standards used in choosing the instruments, in sampling procedures, and in choosing the most appropriate statistical treatment, making the research replicable. o Consistent with standards = replicable. 4. Personal biases can be avoided. 5. Processes involved are simplified since the steps in doing quantitative research are made easy and systematic. 6. Results can be reduced through statistical treatments and can be interpreted in a few statements. Disadvantages of Quantitative Research 1. Context of the study of experiment is ignored in such a way that it does not consider the natural setting where the study is conducted. o May be unapplicable in real life. o Does not consider the environment. 2. Having a large sample requires researchers to spend more resources. 3. Results are limited since they are usually based on the analysis of numbers and are obtained from detailed narratives. o Not much room for interpretation. 4. Provides less elaborate accounts of human perceptions. o Due to fixed answers. 5. In experimental research, the level of control might not be normally applicable in the real world because it is usually done in a laboratory. 6. Preset or fixed answers may not necessarily reflect the true answers of the participants. 7. Findings can be influenced by the researcher’s perspective, since most of the time, the participants are unknown to him or her. Importance of Quantitative Research in Different Fields 1. Validating results. 2. In education: o Measure the level of performance of students and teachers. o Assess the effectiveness of the methods used, programs conducted, and satisfaction of all stakeholders. 3. In business: o Improve marketing strategy. o Make informed decisions. o Solicit consumers’ opinions for productivity. o This type of research is largely utilized in product development and the creation of favorable marketing campaigns. 4. In medical and allied health services (healthcare): o Healthcare procedures, routines, and other systems must be based on the result of scientific investigation. o Analyze the rate of discovery, the number of patients with illnesses and sickness, and the efficacy of medicines and drugs. 2  o Experimental research on effective medicine vaccines and other drugs that cure a specific sickness, or illness is conducted through quantitative research. 5. In science and technology: o The rate of processing certain devices and the time consumed for any procedure. o A more responsible and accountable operation of the different components of technology. Variable ¨ Subject of the study. ¨ Can change/be affected by other variables. ¨ Any factor or property that a researcher measures, controls, or manipulates. ¨ The changing quantity or measure of any factor, trait, or condition that can exist in differing amounts or types. ¨ Also called a data item. Classification of Variables 1. Numeric Variables o How many? How much? o Variables with values that describe a measurable numerical quantity. o Quantitative data. a. Continuous Variables § Decimals § Can assume any value between a certain set of real numbers. § The value depends on the scale used. § Also called interval variables. § Ex: time, age, temperature, height, and weight. b. Discrete Variables § Whole numbers § Can only assume any whole value within the limits of the given variables. § Ex: number of registered cars, number of business locations, number of children in the family, population of students, and total number of faculty members. 2. Categorical Variables ¨ Can be ordered/arranged. ¨ What type? Which category? ¨ Variables with values that describe a quality or characteristic of a data unit. a. Ordinal Variables § Can take a value which can be logically ordered or ranked. § Ex: academic grades as A, B, C, clothing sizes, and attitudes like strongly agree, agree, disagree, or strongly disagree. b. Nominal Variables § Cannot be organized. § No order. § Variables whose values cannot be organized in a logical sequence. § Ex: business types, eye colors, kinds of religion, various languages, and types of learners. c. Dichotomous Variables 3  § Represent only two categories. § Ex: gender (male, female), answer (yes, no), and veracity (true, false). d. Polychotomous Variables § Variables that have many categories. § Ex: educational attainment and level of performance. 3. Experimental Variables a. Independent Variables § Affects, stands alone. § Usually manipulated in an experiment. § Also called manipulated or explanatory variable. b. Dependent Variables § Usually affected by the manipulation of the independent variables. § Also called response or predicted variable. c. Extraneous Variables § Affects the study but it is not the focus. § Also called mediating or intervening variables. § Already exist during the conduct of an experiment and could influence the result of the study. § Known as covariate variables. 4. Non-experimental Variables a. Predictor Variables § Independent variable/s in non-experimental studies. § Change the other variables in a non-experimental study. b. Criterion Variables § Dependent variable/s in non-experimental studies. § Usually influenced by the predictor variables. 5. Variables According to the Number Being Studied a. Univariate – one variable is being studied. b. Bivariate – two variables are being studied. c. Polyvariate – more than two variables are being studied. 4 PRAS02A Research Title The title should: 1. Summarize the main idea of the paper, 2. Be a concise statement of the main topic, 3. Include the major variable/s, 4. Show the relationship of the main variable of the study, 5. Include the main task of the researcher about the major variables under the study, and 6. Mention the participants (in a general manner) and the setting. The researcher must be reminded of the following: ¨ Avoid using words that serve no useful purposes and can mislead indexers. The words methods, results, investigations, and study appear redundant when used in research title. ¨ The general problem or even the specific question, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title. ¨ The title must have 10 to 15 words. Possible Means of Identifying Research Problems ¨ A feeling of discomfort or a generally perceived difficulty. ¨ A gap between theory and practice. ¨ A daily experience of a person that requires further inquiry especially if improvements are desired. ¨ A pattern or trend. ¨ A literature review. The following instances can give students an idea that something is researchable: ¨ Solutions are available but not yet tested and not known by the practitioner. ¨ No solutions are available to answer the gap, or the problem assessed. ¨ Answers, solutions, or results are seemingly not tested or are factually contradictory. ¨ A phenomenon exists which requires explanation. ¨ There are several and plausible explanations for the existence of an undesirable condition. Considerations in Formulating Research Problems A. External Criteria § Factors or qualities that go beyond the researcher’s personal qualities or attributes that affect his or her study. 1. Novelty § The topic must not have been used by many researchers. § The newness of a topic and its variables will inspire a researcher or other fellow researcher. 2. Availability of subjects § Participants must me within reach. 3. Administrative support § Aid or assistance that can be solicited from the school or extended by the community. 4. Availability and adequacy of facilities and equipment § Devices (computers, telephones, and WiFi) must be considered. 5. Legal and ethical considerations 5  § Legal and morally right. B. Internal Criteria § Personal characteristics, capabilities, and qualities of the researcher that affect the study. 1. Experience, training, and professional qualifications § The researcher’s knowledge, expertise, and experience for him/her to cope with research demands. 2. Motivation, interest, intellectual curiosity, and perceptiveness of the researcher § Essential attitudes that bring anticipated satisfaction or enjoyment in the completion of research tasks. 3. Time management § Given time frame. 4. Personal costs and returns § The amount of necessary funding depends on the size of the sample, the place where the research is to be conducted, the research design, and the treatment of data. 5. Hazards, penalties, and handicaps 6. Determined by the researcher’s physical and intellectual capacity and moral judgement. Way to select the most appropriate research title: 1. Thing of an issue or concern you are confronted with. 2. Organize the broad topic using a concept map or clustering diagram. 3. Select specific aspects. 4. Formulate a tentative title. Kinds and Importance of Quantitative Research Types of Quantitative Research 1. Non-experimental § No changes to the variables and no manipulation of research. § Measure and observe. a. Descriptive o Determines frequency: How much? How many? b. Correlational o Relationships among variables. o Cause and effect. o Positive correlational – both variables change in the same direction. o Negative correlational – variables change in opposite directions. o No correlation. 2. Experimental 3. Confirming if variable A affects variable B. 4. True-experimental 5. Randomly grouped participants. 6. Higher validity. 7. Specific characteristics, lower validity because external factors may affect the results. 6