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Scientific Method Mariana V. C. Coutinho, PhD Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, cop...

Scientific Method Mariana V. C. Coutinho, PhD Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Read the following statements and tell me whether you think they are true or false. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Introduction Science is defined not by what it investigates but by how it investigates. It is the use of the scientific method that makes psychology a science. The scientific method is a method of acquiring knowledge. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  1.2 The Scientific Method Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Scientific Method An approach to acquiring knowledge – Involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers It follows a structured and methodical approach to gather and analyze information. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Scientific Method An approach to acquiring knowledge – Involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers Constructing hypotheses Testing hypotheses through systematic observation/experiment Developing theories Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Steps of the Scientific Method 1. Observe behavior or other phenomena. 2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis). 3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction. 4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations (by conducting a study) 5. Use the data collected/results to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Process of Scientific Inquiry Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: Suppose you made the following observation: “I tend to overestimate my performance when I do poorly in exams” Then, you asked yourself “ why is that the case?” Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Suppose you made the following observation: “I tend to overestimate my performance when I do poorly in exams” Then, you asked yourself “ why is that the case?” And you come up with a tentative explanation: “When people have limited knowledge, they tend to overestimate themselves.” Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis: When people have limited knowledge, they tend to overestimate themselves. Prediction: Students who perform poorly in an exam will greatly overestimate themselves. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis: When people have limited knowledge, they tend to overestimate themselves. Prediction: Students who perform poorly in an exam will greatly overestimate themselves. Then you design a study to evaluate this prediction. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. The Process of Scientific Inquiry Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Important Principles of the Scientific Method It is empirical. It is public. It is objective. Falsifiability - the hypothesis proposed are testable and potentially falsifiable Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Science Is Empirical and Public Empirical: knowledge is obtained by making structured or systematic observations. – Scientists rely on empirical data gathered through experiments, observations, and measurements to develop and test hypotheses. – Results will provide clear support for the hypothesis or will clearly refute the hypothesis Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Science Is Empirical and Public Public: Observations are available for evaluation by others. – Replication is key to the scientific method. Objective: Outcome is not skewed by bias. It means that conclusions drawn from a study is based solely on observable evidence and logical reasoning, rather than on the scientist's beliefs, feelings, or preferences. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Science Is Empirical and Public Public: Observations are available for evaluation by others. – Replication is key to the scientific method. Objective: Outcome is not skewed by bias. Falsifiability: For a hypothesis or theory to be scientific, it must be testable and potentially falsifiable. This means that there must be a way to prove the hypothesis wrong if it is incorrect. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Testing your knowledge about Research Methods What are variables? What are constructs? Operational Definition of Constructs Hypothesis vs. Prediction Theory Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Variables and Constructs Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Variables Variables: characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals. Are height and weight variables? Are motivation and self-esteem variables? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. – Types of variables involved in research § Example 1: height and weight § Example 2: motivation or self-esteem How do they differ? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. – Types of variables involved in research § Example 1: height and weight § Well-defined, easily observed, and easily measured § Example 2: motivation or self-esteem § Intangible, abstract, internal attributes Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. – Types of variables involved in research § Example 1: height and weight § Well-defined, easily observed, and easily measured § Example 2: motivation or self-esteem § Intangible, abstract attributes Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs What are constructs? – Hypothetical entities created from theory and speculation § Cannot be seen, but are assumed to exist § Help explain and predict behavior § Created to explain individual differences Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs Constructs are variables that cannot be observed directly. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs Psychological constructs cannot be observed directly. One reason is that they often represent tendencies to think, feel, or act in certain ways. For example, to say that a particular university student is highly extraverted does not necessarily mean that she is behaving in an extraverted way right now. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs Psychological constructs cannot be observed directly. Another reason psychological constructs cannot be observed directly is that they often involve internal processes. Fear, for example, involves the activation of certain central and peripheral nervous system structures, along with certain kinds of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors—none of which is necessarily obvious to an outside observer. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Examples of Constructs Intelligence Personality traits Self-esteem Attitudes Emotional states (e.g., fear) Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs Conceptual Definition of Constructs Operational Definition of Constructs Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Constructs Conceptual Definition of Constructs describes the behaviors and internal processes that make up that construct. For example, a conceptual definition of neuroticism would be: it is a tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and sadness across a variety of situations Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Conceptual Definition Example The definition might also include that it has a strong genetic component, remains fairly stable over time, and is positively correlated with the tendency to experience pain and other physical symptoms. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Operational Definition Operational definitions are definitions of constructs in measurable terms. They translate abstract concepts (like intelligence, happiness, or aggression) into specific, measurable procedures. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: The operational definition of neuroticism is how the trait is defined in measurable terms through specific behaviors, emotions, or self-reported responses that can be quantified using an instrument like the Big Five Inventory (BFI). Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Operational Definition Neuroticism is operationally defined as the score an individual receives on a standardized questionnaire (such as the Neuroticism Subscale of BFI (such as the BFI). Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: For example, if a researcher is studying "stress," the operational definition of stress might be (A) the number of stress-related symptoms reported by participants on a standardized questionnaire. (B) the level of cortisol in a participant's saliva. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Conceptual Definition Example For example, a conceptual definition of neuroticism would be: it is a tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, anger, and sadness across a variety of situations. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Hypothesis vs. Prediction  Hypothesis What is a hypothesis? – A statement that describes or explains a relationship between variables; “best guess” § A hypothesis can lead to several different observable and measurable predictions. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Prediction Hypothesis Prediction A hypothesis is a broader, testable A prediction is a specific, testable statement or educated guess about statement about what you expect to the relationship between two or more happen in your study if the variables. hypothesis is true. It is based on existing knowledge, theory, or observation and serves as It is derived from the hypothesis the foundation for research. And it describes the expected outcome of a particular experiment or observation. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis Example There is a relationship between the personality trait of being an extrovert and choosing red as your favourite colour. Women speak more than men. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Predictions Once we have a hypothesis, we can then derive predictions from it. For example: HA: There is a relationship between the personality trait of being an extrovert and choosing red as your favourite colour. Prediction: People who rate themselves as being very outgoing will be more likely to choose red as their favourite colour than people who identify as introverts. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Testing your knowledge Hypothesis: Increased physical activity leads to improved mental health. Prediction: ? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Testing your knowledge Hypothesis: Increased physical activity leads to improved mental health. Prediction: Participants who exercise for 30 minutes daily will report a 20% increase in their mental well-being scores after 8 weeks Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Theory in Psychology  Questions What is a theory? How does it differ from a hypothesis? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Theories in psychology Theories in psychology are comprehensive frameworks that have been developed and refined over time through extensive research and empirical evidence. Theories aim to provide a coherent explanation for complex psychological phenomena, drawing from multiple studies and observations Theories help to organize knowledge and guide future research. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Theories in psychology Theories in psychology are comprehensive frameworks that … Comprehensive frameworks = it includes key concepts and relationships that are central to explain a phenomenon and for providing a basis for research hypotheses and methodologies. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1990) is a well-established theory that explains how and why children form emotional bonds with their caregivers and how these bonds affect their development. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: The theory suggests that early interactions with caregivers shape a child's emotional and social development, influencing their behavior and relationships later in life. It offers explanations for a variety of behaviors and developmental outcomes based on the nature of the child's early attachments. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Theories How do they differ? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Theories How do they differ? They differ in scope Theory: Broad and general. Provides a comprehensive explanation of a phenomenon. Hypothesis: Narrow and specific. Provides an educated guess for why a phenomenon occurs. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Theories How do they differ? They differ in development Theory: Develops from the accumulation of evidence over time. Hypothesis: Often arises from an existing theory or a gap in the literature. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Theories How do they differ? They differ in testing Theory: Theories are not directly testable but are supported or refuted by the results of numerous studies. They are refined over time as new evidence emerges. Hypothesis: Directly testable through empirical research Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For example: A hypothesis derived from Attachment Theory could be Adolescents who were securely attached as infants will exhibit lower levels of anxiety in social situations compared to those who were insecurely attached. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hypothesis vs. Theory In summary, a hypothesis is specific and directly testable while a theory is a broader, well-substantiated explanation. Hypotheses are derived from theories. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Theories in psychology serve several key purposes: Explanation: provide explanations for why and how certain psychological phenomena occur. Prediction: Theories allow psychologists to predict future behaviors or outcomes based on the principles they describe. For instance, a theory about learning can predict how people might acquire new skills. Guidance for Research: Theories guide researchers in designing studies, formulating hypotheses, and interpreting data. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Theories in psychology serve several key purposes: Practical Application: Theories often inform practical interventions, treatments, or policies in areas like mental health, education, and organizational behavior. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  For Example: Attachment Theory (Bowlby,1990) Attachment Theory focuses on the importance of early emotional bonds between children and their primary caregivers and suggests that the quality of early relationships between child and caregiver significantly impacts a person's emotional and social development throughout life. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  What does it explain? What does it predict? How does it guide research? What are the practical implications? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1. Explanation: It explains how the way a caregiver responds to the child's needs influences the child's sense of security and attachment style. 2. Prediction: predicts that the type of attachment formed during infancy and early childhood will influence an individual’s future relationships. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 4. Guiding research: research tool that emerged from this theory is the "Strange Situation" procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth, which is used to assess the attachment styles of children. 5. Practical implications: It informs therapeutic practices that help individuals understand and address the impacts of their early attachment experiences on their current relationships. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Steps in the Research Process 1. Selecting a topic 2. Search the literature to find out more about the topic and an unanswered question. 3. Form a hypothesis. 4. Determine how you will define and measure your variables How are you going to manipulate the IV? How are you measuring the DV? Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  The Steps in the Research Process contin.. 6. Select a research design (experimental: between or within-subject design) 7. Develop a prediction. 8. Apply for ethics clearance. 9. Conduct the study. 10. Analyze the data. 11. Report the results (APA written report and Presentation) 12. Refine or reformulate your research idea. Gravetter | Forzano, Research Methods Behavioral Sciences, 6th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.