PSY 217 Research Methods I PDF

PSY 217 RESEARCH METHODS I Scientific Understanding of Behavior Importance of Research Methods Many occupations utilize research findings. Health, business, education, etc. Scientific research findings affect public policy decisions. Development and assessment of the effectiveness of programs...

PSY 217 RESEARCH METHODS I Scientific Understanding of Behavior Importance of Research Methods Many occupations utilize research findings. Health, business, education, etc. Scientific research findings affect public policy decisions. Development and assessment of the effectiveness of programs designed to achieve certain goals. School education, increasing productivity in I/O settings, etc. Research is sometimes the only way to answer certain problems about ourselves or the environment. Ways of Knowing Intuition A major problem with intuition is that, various cognitive and motivational biases affect our perceptions, and therefore we may draw erroneous conclusions about cause and effect. Authority Some people easily accept what they learn from the Internet, media, books, government authorities, celebrities, religious figures, etc. Empiricism A fundamental method of scientific method. Refers to the idea that knowledge is based on observations. The scientific approach There are certain qualities of a scientific approach (Goodstein, 2000): Data plays a central role In science, knowledge is primarily based on observations that might verify or reject certain ideas. Scientists are not alone Scientific information is shared with other scientists and the public. Science is adversarial In science, different ideas battle with each other with the aim of finding the best possible answer. Falsifiability Scientific evidence is peer reviewed Before being published, other scientists usually evaluate are search finding (peer review). The aim is to prevent research with major flaws to become apart of scientific literature. Pseudoscience Pseudoscience is“fake”science in which seemingly scientific concepts are used to support claims that have no basis in scientific research. Eg. the claim that a certain product will enhance your memory. When evaluating a seemingly scientific claim ,you should beware of the following: Untestable claims that cannot be falsified. Claims that rely on inaccurate, biased, or vague language. Evidence is based on anecdotes or testimonials rather than objective data. Evidence from expert with only vague qualifications who provide claims without scientific evidence. Only confirmatory evidence is presented, conflicting evidence is ignored. References to scientific knowledge lack information on the methods that would allow independent verification. Goals of Behavioral Science Description of Behavior Prediction of behavior Determining the causes of behavior Understanding or explaining behavior Description of Behavior The first and foremost goal of science is to describe behavior. Time spent for recreational computer activities among 8-18 year-olds (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Prediction of Behavior Once scientists observe some regularity that two events are systematically related to each other (eg. cigarette smoking is associated with higher incidences of lung cancer), it becomes possible to make predictions. Prediction allows us to anticipate events and make better decisions. Eg. The relationship between attractiveness and relationship duration. Determining the Causes of Behavior 3 conditions must be satisfied to conclude causation: Temporal precedence There should be a temporal order of events in which the cause precedes the effect. Television viewing -Aggression Covariation of cause and effect When the cause is present, the effect should occur; and when the cause is not present, the effect should not occur. Television viewing Aggression No television viewing -No aggression Elimination of alternative explanations There should be no other plausible alternative explanation for the relationship. Explanation of Behavior Aims to understand why a certain behavior or phenomenon occurs. Eg. TV violence and aggression. Why? Imitation or modeling Psychological desensitization to violence. Leads to a belief that aggression is normal. Basic vs. Applied Research Basic research Aims to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior. Concerned with the basic processes of behavior and cognition rather than any immediate practical implications. Applied research Aims to address is sues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions. Review Questions Describe why it is important to understand research methods? Understanding research methods is crucial because it allows individuals to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of studies, enabling them to discern credible information from biased or flawed research. This knowledge is essential for making informed decisions based on evidence, particularly in fields like psychology, where research findings can significantly impact personal development and interventions. Additionally, understanding these methods equips you with the skills to conduct your own research, which is valuable for exploring various psychological concepts effectively. Understanding research methods is super important because they help us gather reliable information and make informed decisions. By using proper research methods, we can ensure that the data we collect is accurate and valid, which is crucial for any study or project. It's like having a solid foundation to build upon! Describe the scientific approach to understanding behavior, and contrast it with pseudoscientific research? The scientific approach to understanding behavior involves the use of empirical methods, systematic observation, and experimentation to gather data and draw conclusions. It follows the scientific method, which includes forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, collecting and analyzing data, and ensuring that results are replicable and peer-reviewed. This approach emphasizes objectivity and rigor, allowing researchers to develop reliable theories about behavior. For instance, psychologists might use controlled studies to assess the effects of different interventions on mental health. In contrast, pseudoscientific research lacks these rigorous standards and often relies on anecdotal evidence or personal testimonials rather than empirical data. Pseudoscience may present findings in a way that seems scientific but does not adhere to the principles of the scientific method. It often avoids rigorous testing and fails to provide falsifiable claims, making it difficult to verify or replicate the results. For example, a pseudoscientific claim about a "cure" for anxiety might be based on individual experiences without any scientific backing. The key difference lies in their methodologies: the scientific approach is systematic, controlled, and based on evidence, while pseudoscientific research is often unstructured and lacks reliable evidence. Define and give examples of the four goals of scientific research: description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation of behavior.? The four goals of scientific research are description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation of behavior. Here's a breakdown of each goal with examples: 1. Description: This goal involves detailing the characteristics of a phenomenon or behavior. For instance, a researcher might observe and document the behaviors of children in a classroom setting, noting how they interact with peers and respond to different teaching styles. This descriptive research helps to create a foundational understanding of the behaviors being studied. 2. Prediction: This goal focuses on forecasting future behaviors based on observed patterns. For example, if a study finds that students who study for longer periods tend to perform better on tests, researchers can predict that students who increase their study time will likely achieve higher grades. Prediction is often based on correlations identified in descriptive research. 3. Determination of Cause: This goal seeks to establish a causal relationship between variables. For instance, a researcher might conduct an experiment to determine if a specific teaching method (independent variable) leads to improved student performance (dependent variable). By manipulating the teaching method and observing the outcomes, researchers can infer causation. 4. Explanation of Behavior: This goal aims to provide a deeper understanding of why a behavior occurs. For example, a psychologist might explore the underlying factors contributing to anxiety in adolescents, such as environmental stressors, genetic predispositions, and personal coping strategies. This comprehensive explanation helps to clarify the complexities of behavior. Each of these goals plays a crucial role in advancing our understanding of human behavior and informing interventions in fields like psychology and education. Discuss the three elements for inferring causation: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanation.? To infer causation, three key elements must be established: temporal order, covariation of cause and effect, and elimination of alternative explanations. Here's a closer look at each element: 1. Temporal Order: This element requires that the cause precedes the effect in time. For example, if we want to determine whether studying more leads to better exam scores, we must ensure that the increased study time occurs before the exam is taken. Establishing this order is essential to support a causal relationship. 2. Covariation of Cause and Effect: This element involves demonstrating that changes in the cause are associated with changes in the effect. For instance, if students who study more consistently achieve higher grades, there is a covariation between study time (the cause) and exam performance (the effect). This correlation suggests a relationship that supports causation. 3. Elimination of Alternative Explanations: To confidently infer causation, researchers must rule out other potential explanations for the observed relationship. This can be done through experimental design, such as using control groups or random assignment, which helps ensure that other variables do not influence the outcome. For instance, if we find that increased study time correlates with better grades, we must consider and eliminate other factors, like prior knowledge or tutoring, that could also affect performance. By establishing these three elements, researchers can strengthen their claims about the causal relationships between variables, leading to a more accurate understanding of behavior. Define, describe, compare, and contrast basic and applied research? Basic and applied research are two fundamental types of scientific inquiry, each serving distinct purposes but often overlapping in their methodologies and applications. Basic Research: This type of research is primarily focused on expanding knowledge and understanding fundamental principles. It seeks to answer questions about how things work without immediate concern for practical applications. For example, a psychologist might conduct basic research to explore the effects of sleep on cognitive function, aiming to uncover underlying mechanisms of memory and learning. The findings from basic research often contribute to theoretical frameworks and can lay the groundwork for future applied studies. Applied Research: In contrast, applied research aims to solve specific, practical problems by applying existing knowledge. It is concerned with real-world applications and often addresses questions that arise from everyday issues. For instance, researchers might investigate the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance, utilizing findings from basic research on learning theories to inform their study. Applied research tends to be more focused and directly relevant to particular contexts or populations. Comparison and Contrast: While both basic and applied research contribute to the advancement of knowledge, their goals and approaches differ. Basic research is exploratory and theory-driven, often leading to new hypotheses and insights that can inform applied research. Applied research, on the other hand, is more pragmatic and solution-oriented, seeking to implement findings in practical settings. Additionally, basic research may not have immediate applications, whereas applied research is designed to address specific challenges and improve practices. In summary, basic research is about understanding and expanding knowledge, while applied research focuses on using that knowledge to solve practical problems. Both types of research are essential in the scientific community, as they complement each other and contribute to a comprehensive understanding of complex issues. Why is it important for anyone in our society to have knowledge of research methods? Having knowledge of research methods is crucial for several reasons in our society. Firstly, it empowers individuals to critically evaluate the validity and reliability of information presented in various contexts, such as news articles, advertisements, and social media. In an age where misinformation can spread rapidly, understanding research methods helps people discern credible sources from unreliable ones. Secondly, knowledge of research methods fosters informed decision-making. Whether in healthcare, education, or public policy, individuals equipped with research literacy can better understand the implications of studies and data, leading to more informed choices that affect their lives and communities. Lastly, understanding research methods encourages a scientific approach to problem-solving. It allows individuals to appreciate how evidence-based practices are developed and implemented, promoting a culture of inquiry and skepticism that is essential for progress and innovation in society. Overall, this knowledge is vital for fostering a well-informed public that can engage with and contribute to discussions about important societal issues. Why is scientific skepticism useful in furthering our knowledge of behavior? How does the scientific approach differ from other ways of gaining knowledge about behavior? Scientific skepticism is useful in furthering our knowledge of behavior because it encourages critical thinking and rigorous questioning of claims and evidence. By applying skepticism, researchers and individuals alike examine the validity of theories and findings, ensuring that conclusions are based on solid evidence rather than assumptions or anecdotal experiences. This process helps to eliminate biases, leading to more reliable and accurate understandings of human behavior. The scientific approach differs from other ways of gaining knowledge about behavior, such as intuition, personal experience, or anecdotal evidence, in that it relies on systematic observation, experimentation, and replication. While other methods may provide insights, they often lack the objectivity and rigor that characterize scientific inquiry. The scientific method emphasizes empirical evidence and the testing of hypotheses, which allows for a more comprehensive and accurate exploration of complex behaviors. This approach not only enhances our understanding but also helps to distinguish genuine psychological principles from pseudoscientific claims. Provide (a) definitions and (b) examples of description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation as goals of scientific research. (a) Definitions: 1. Description: This goal involves detailing the characteristics or features of a phenomenon, behavior, or population. It provides a comprehensive account of what is observed without necessarily explaining why it occurs. 2. Prediction: This goal focuses on forecasting future occurrences based on observed patterns or relationships. It involves using existing data to anticipate outcomes under specific conditions. 3. Determination of Cause: This goal seeks to establish a causal relationship between variables. It involves identifying what factors influence or lead to certain behaviors or outcomes, often through experimental methods. 4. Explanation: This goal aims to provide an understanding of why a phenomenon occurs. It involves interpreting the underlying mechanisms or processes that account for observed behaviors or events. (b) Examples: 1. Description: A researcher conducts a survey to describe the eating habits of teenagers, detailing what types of food they consume and how often. 2. Prediction: A psychologist uses data from previous studies to predict that students who study for longer hours will perform better on exams compared to those who study for shorter periods. 3. Determination of Cause: An experiment is conducted to determine whether sleep deprivation causes decreased cognitive performance by comparing test scores of participants who had adequate sleep versus those who were sleep-deprived. 4. Explanation: A study explores the reasons behind anxiety in social situations, explaining that it may stem from past experiences, cognitive distortions, or biological predispositions. Describe the three elements for inferring causation. To infer causation, three key elements must be established: 1. Temporal Precedence: This element requires that the cause must occur before the effect. In other words, for one variable to be considered the cause of another, it must be demonstrated that changes in the cause happen prior to changes in the effect. 2. Covariation of Cause and Effect: This element involves showing that there is a consistent relationship between the cause and the effect. If the cause is present, the effect should also be present, and if the cause is absent, the effect should be absent as well. This means that changes in the independent variable (the cause) should lead to changes in the dependent variable (the effect). 3. Elimination of Alternative Explanations: This element requires ruling out other potential causes for the observed effect. It is essential to demonstrate that the relationship observed is not due to other confounding variables or factors that could explain the effect. This is often achieved through experimental designs that control for these alternative explanations. By establishing these three elements, researchers can make stronger claims about causation rather than mere correlation Describe the characteristics of scientific inquiry, according to Goodstein (2000). According to Goodstein (2000), the characteristics of scientific inquiry include: 1. Empirical Evidence: Scientific inquiry relies on observable and measurable evidence. Researchers gather data through experiments, observations, and other systematic methods to support their conclusions. 2. Testability: Scientific hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable. This means that there should be a way to prove or disprove the hypothesis through experimentation or observation. 3. Reproducibility: The results of scientific inquiries should be reproducible by other researchers. This ensures that findings are reliable and not simply due to chance or specific conditions of a single study. 4. Peer Review: Scientific inquiry involves scrutiny by the scientific community. Research findings are often subject to peer review before publication, helping to ensure the validity and reliability of the work. 5. Cumulative Nature: Scientific knowledge builds on previous research. New inquiries often reference and build upon past studies, contributing to a growing body of knowledge. 6. Objective Approach: Scientific inquiry strives for objectivity, minimizing personal biases and subjective interpretations. Researchers aim to observe phenomena as accurately as possible, relying on data rather than personal beliefs. These characteristics help distinguish scientific inquiry from other forms of knowledge acquisition and ensure that scientific findings are robust and credible. How does basic research differ from applied research? Basic research and applied research differ primarily in their objectives and applications: 1. Basic Research: This type of research is focused on expanding knowledge and understanding fundamental principles. It seeks to answer theoretical questions without immediate practical application in mind. For example, a study investigating the underlying mechanisms of memory formation would be considered basic research. 2. Applied Research: In contrast, applied research is aimed at solving specific, practical problems. It takes the findings from basic research and applies them to real-world situations. For instance, research designed to develop new techniques for improving memory in educational settings would fall under applied research. In summary, basic research is about gaining knowledge for its own sake, while applied research seeks to use that knowledge to address specific issues or challenges. Study Terms Alternative explanations are di erent interpretations or hypotheses that could explain the results of a study. Applied research often requires ruling out alternative explanations to ensure that the observed effects are genuinely due to the intervention or variable being studied and not other factors. Authority The power or right to give orders, make decisions, and enforce obedience. Basic research: The systematic study aimed at gaining more comprehensive knowledge or understanding of fundamental aspects of phenomena without specific applications in mind. Covariation of cause and effect: To demonstrate that one event causes another, the effect must be present when the cause is present and absent when the cause is absent. Empiricism: The philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience and observations. Falsifiability: The principle that a scientific theory must be stated in such a way that it can be tested and potentially proven false. This is a key criterion for distinguishing scientific theories from pseudoscientific ones. The goals of behavioral science include describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. These goals help in understanding the underlying mechanisms of behavior and applying this knowledge to improve human well-being. Intuition: The ability to understand something immediately, without the need for conscious reasoning. In behavioral science, intuition is often contrasted with empirical methods, which rely on systematic observation and evidence. Peer review: The process by which a researcher's work is evaluated by other experts in the same field before it is published. This helps ensure the validity, reliability, and quality of the research by identifying any potential flaws or biases. Program evaluation: The systematic assessment of the design, implementation, and outcomes of a program, with the aim of determining its effectiveness and identifying areas for improvement. Pseudoscience: Claims, beliefs, or practices that are presented as scientific but lack empirical evidence and are not based on the scientific method. This is ff important to differentiate from scientific research. Skepticism: An attitude of doubt or a critical approach towards claims, particularly those lacking empirical evidence. In psychology and behavioral science, skepticism is essential for evaluating the validity and reliability of research findings, helping to differentiate between credible science and pseudoscience. Temporal precedence refers to the principle that for one event to be considered a cause of another, the first event must occur before the second. In research, establishing temporal precedence is crucial for determining causal relationships. For example, if a study finds that increased study time leads to higher exam scores, it must be demonstrated that the study time occurred before the exam scores were measured to support the claim that study time causes improved performance. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ RESEARCH QUESTIONS, HYPOTHESES,PREDICTIONS Research Question & Hypothesis A research question is a broad statement/question about a topic that a researcher would like to conduct research on. A hypothesis is a more specific form of are search question; it is a tentative idea or question that needs evidence to support or refute it. A hypothesis can be in the form of a question or tentative statement. A prediction is as guess at the out come of a hypothesis. Qualities of a good hypothesis It should be simple. It should be clear and precise. It should be testable. It should be internally consistent. It should offer at least some prediction of a future event/behavior. Types of Hypotheses Null hypothesis (H0): proposes that there is not a statistically significant difference/relationship between two variables. Research hypothesis (H1): proposes that there is a statistically significant difference/relationship between any two variables. In statistics, we always test the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis is rejected, we infer that the research hypothesis is supported. Hypothesis Examples “There is a relationship between stress and mental health”. “Individuals who had been subject to violence during their childhood are more likely to become aggressive in adulthood.” “People’s level of happiness is lower on the first day of the week compared to the last day of the week.” Students who eat breakfast are more successful at school compared to students who do not eat breakfast. “Talking on a cell phone while driving increases the risk of accidents”. “There is a significant relationship between state anxiety and test performance”. Relationships among Research Questions, Hypotheses, and Predictions Sources of Ideas Common sense Observation of the world around us Theories Past research Practical problems Common sense Most of our knowledge about the world comes from common sense-the things we all believe to be true. Testing a commonsense idea might be valuable since such notions do not always turn out to be correct, or research may show that the real world is much more complicated. Eg. “Do opposites attract?” Observation of the world around us Observation of personal or social events can stimulate different ideas for research. Eg.In public, there is a fear that exposure to popular music lyrics including sexuality, drug or alcohol use might have an adverse effect on adolescents. Slater & Henry (2013) conducted research on this topic and found that increased exposure to popular music is a risk factor for starting to use alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. Eg. Ivan Pavlov Theories A theory is a scientific statement that consists of a systematic body of ideas about a particular topic or phenomenon. Example: Bowlby’s Attachment Theory A theory should clearly explains the concepts and constructs that it proposes. A theory should have internal consistency. A scientific theory has its basis on actual data from prior research as well as numerous hypotheses that are consistent with the theory. These hypotheses can be tested with further research. What is the use of a theory? Theories help us to understand the persons, events, or circumstances in our surroundings. They satisfy our need to control the environment. They integrate different types and sources of information. Past Research Research findings are shared with other scientists. Therefore, it becomes possible to use the body of past literature on a certain topic to refine and expand our knowledge. The scientist might also see inconsistencies in research results which needs to be further investigated. Or, we might be interested in finding alternative explanations for a research finding. Practical Problems Practical problems that can have immediate applications might also stimulate research. Obesity and eating disorders, city planning, other social and health issues that require solutions or interventions. The Anatomy of a Research Article Research articles generally involve 5 sections: Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion Abstract A brief summary of the research. Usually less than 120 words. Information about the hypothesis, research procedure, and the broad pattern of results are mentioned in the abstract. Introduction Outline of the problem Past research and theories relevant to the problem (literature review) Specific expectations and hypotheses of the researcher Method Composed of various subsections Participants Materials Procedure (Design) Results The research findings are presented, usually in3 ways: The results are described in statistical language. Eg. “The results of the independent samples t-test comparing the reaction times of the 2 groups turned out to be statistically significant; t (24) = 4.56, p