PSY-245 Research Methods and Statistics I PDF

1 PSY-245 RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS I Dr. Chryso Pieridi [email protected]  Week 1 2 ¨ Introduction ¨ Science ¨ Goals of Behavioural Science ¨ Steps of the Research Process ¨ Ethical Guidelines Science...

1 PSY-245 RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS I Dr. Chryso Pieridi [email protected]  Week 1 2 ¨ Introduction ¨ Science ¨ Goals of Behavioural Science ¨ Steps of the Research Process ¨ Ethical Guidelines Science of WHAT IS SCIENCE? > - Product systematic body knowledge seelop explanation to ¨ Science is a set of activities aimed at: producing a systematic, reliable body of knowledge about the natural world. developing valid explanations for its workings. ¨ Often described as a series of steps (scientific method). The scientific method may be a myth because it suggests: ¤ there is one method followed by all scientists (incorrect!). ¤ that science is done mechanically in a series of steps (incorrect!).  Science WHAT SCIENTISTS DO ¨ Scientists make systematic observations of the natural world. Astronomers observe the stars and other astronomical objects. Psychologists set up experiments to observe behaviour. Scientists provide evidence to support or refute proposed explanations for observed phenomena. Systematic observations produce quantitative or qualitative data. ¨ Scientists analyse data to discover relationships and draw conclusions.  Science WHAT SCIENTISTS DO ¨ Scientists argue from evidence to support data and conclusions to convince others. Observations, conclusions, and explanations can be provisionally accepted in science. ¤ Scientific conclusions can be overturned by new evidence. ¤ Even apparently settled science may not always be. ¤ Science is ultimately self-correcting. Communicating ideas and findings is essential for the process of science. One must become an “expert” in a given field to contribute usefully to science.  17 Description Goals of Behavioural Science > - a) Prediction Determing cause 3) 4) Explanation 6 ¨ Scientific research on behaviour has four general goals: Description. Prediction. Determining causes. Understanding or explanation.  Goals of Behavioural Science 7 Description Can be either directly observable or bes observable - ¨Behaviour can be something directly observable or something less observable. One example of less observable behaviour is mental states. ¨Researchers are often interested in describing the ways in which events are systematically related to one another. For example: Do jurors judge attractive defendants more leniently than unattractive defendants?  Figure 1 Adolescent screen time use during COVID-19 pandemic 8  Goals of Behavioural Science 9 Prediction ¨ Once it has been observed with some regularity that two events are related, it becomes possible to make predictions. For example, once early-childhood poverty is related to lower school achievement, children growing up in poverty can be predicted to have fewer indicators of academic achievement. ¨ It should be noted that such predictions are probabilistic.  Goals of Behavioural Science 10 Determining Causes ¨To know how to change behaviour, we need to know the causes of behaviour. ¨Cook and Campbell (1979), describe three types of evidence used to identify the cause of a behaviour: Temporal precedence is the order of events in which the cause precedes the effect. Covariation of cause and effect means when the cause is present, the effect occurs; and when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur. Alternative explanations must be eliminated.  Goals of Behavioural Science 11 Explaining Behaviour ¨The final goal of science is to explain—to understand why a behaviour occurs. For example, even if we know that childhood poverty can be a cause of lower school achievement, we still need to explain this relationship. ¨New research findings almost always pose new questions that must be addressed by future research. Explanations often must be discarded or revised as new evidence is gathered. Steps of the Research Process ¤ Developing a research idea and hypothesis. ¤ Choosing an appropriate research design. ¤ Choosing an appropriate subject population – the participants. ¤ Deciding on what to observe. ¤ Conducting a study. ¤ Analyzing data. here start ¤ Reporting results. SpSs  Steps of the Research Process 13 ¨ The research question is the first and most general step in the research process. A good research question must be specific enough that a research project can answer it. ¨A hypothesis is a tentative answer to the research question – hypothetical statements about the observed phenomenon. ¨ A prediction is a guess at the outcome of a study. It must follow directly from the hypothesis. It must be testable. It must include specific variables and methodologies. 14 - From broad specific to  Steps of the Research Process 15 Sources of Ideas ¨ Common sense consists of the things we all believe to be true. Testing commonsense ideas can be valuable because such notions do not always turn out to be correct. ¨ Practical problems can have immediate applications. ¨ Observation of the world around us can provide many ideas for research. ¨ Much research in the behavioural sciences tests theories of behaviour. ¨Another source of ideas is past research. Familiarity with research literature on a topic may show inconsistencies in research results that need to be investigated  Steps of the Research Process 16 A theory is a systematic body of ideas about a particular topic or phenomenon. Theories organize and explain a variety of specific facts or descriptions of behaviour. Theories generate new knowledge by focusing our thinking so that we notice new aspects of behaviour. ¨A scientific theory is grounded in actual data from prior research as well as ↑ numerous hypotheses that are consistent with the theory. ¨ The theory can be modified to account for new data.  Abstract Steps of the Research Process > i Introduction Methods ↑ Resula 17 3) Discussions Empirical research articles usually have five sections: ¨ Abstract. 17 Abstract 3 Introduction or literature review. 2) Introduction Method. 3) Methods 4) Results Results. 5) Discussion Discussion.  Steps of the Research Process of research Summary report 18 > - ¨ The Abstract is a summary of the research report. It is typically between 150 and 250 words in length. It includes the hypothesis, the procedure, and the broad pattern of results. Little information from the discussion section is included. - Gives the problem being investigate ¨ In the Introduction, the researcher outlines the problem that has been investigated. Past research and relevant theories are described. Specific expectations are noted often as formal hypotheses.  Steps of the Research Process 19 ¨The Methods section is divided into subsections depending on the complexity of the research design. ¨ Subsections commonly include the following: Overview of design. Characteristics of participants. Procedure used. Equipment or testing materials.  Steps of the Research Process 20 ¨ In the Results section, the findings are presented—usually in three ways: Description in narrative form. Reals either witth show graph 3 are in , , Description in statistical language. statistic or table Material depicted in tables or graphs. ¨In the Discussion section, the researcher reviews the research described in the Method and Results sections from various perspectives. Whether the results support the hypothesis and possible explanations. How the results compare with past research on the topic. Possible practical applications and future research.  Ethical Guidelines ¨ Several documents specified the parameters of ethical research practice. n Nuremberg Code: The Nuremberg Code arose from the Nazi war crime trials after the Second World War and laid the ground work for later ethical codes. n Declaration of Helsinki. n Belmont Report. n A P A ethical guidelines. Why do we need ethical guidelines in research?  Ethical Guidelines The ten points of the Nuremberg Code: q Participation of the subjects must be voluntary, and they should have the capacity to give consent to participate. Subjects should be fully informed of the purpose, nature, and duration of the experiment. q The research should yield results that are useful to society and that cannot be obtained in any other way. q The research should have a sound footing in animal research and be based on the natural history of the problem under study.  Ethical Guidelines q Steps should be taken to avoid unnecessary physical or psychological harm to subjects. q Experiment should not be conducted if there is reason to believe that death or disability will occur to the subjects. q The risk involved in the research should be proportional to the benefits to be obtained from the results. q Proper plans should be made and facilities should be provided to protect the subject against harm. q Research should be conducted by highly qualified scientists only.  Ethical Guidelines q The subject should have the freedom to withdraw from the experiment at any time if he or she has reached the conclusion that continuing with the experiment is not possible. q The researcher must be prepared to discontinue the experiment if it becomes evident to the him/her that continuing the research will be harmful to the subjects.  Ethical Guidelines 25 The APA Ethics Code, periodically amended, applies to psychologists in their many roles. It presents five general principles of conduct: qThe principle of beneficence refers to the need for research to maximize benefits and minimize any possible harmful effects of participation. qThe principle of fidelity and responsibility is that psychologists must establish relationships of trust and be aware of their responsibilities to society and to the specific communities in which they work.  Ethical Guidelines 26 qThe principle of integrity is that psychologists must seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness, and they do not steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, or intentional misrepresentation of fact. qThe principle of justice refers to fairness and equity—that all persons are entitled to access and benefit from the contributions of psychology and equal quality in processes, procedures, and services.  Ethical Guidelines 27 qThe principle of respect for persons: Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination. They are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to protect the rights and welfare of some persons or communities whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision making. They are aware of the many differences among people and consider these factors with an eye to eliminating the effect of biases on their work.  Ethical Guidelines 28 Informed consent is the idea that potential participants in research should be provided with information that might influence their active decision to participate. An informed consent form typically covers: Purpose of the research. Procedures that will be used. Risks and benefits. Any compensation. Confidentiality. Voluntary participation and permission to withdraw. Contact information for questions.  Ethical Guidelines 29 Special populations such as minors, patients in psychiatric hospitals, or adults with cognitive impairments require special precautions. Assent is agreement by a minor in which the written consent form is signed by a parent or guardian. Any procedure that limits an individual’s freedom to consent is potentially coercive. Many institutions have specific guidelines for researchers to use when designing incentives.  Ethical Guidelines 30 Deception Withholding some information from participants is generally acceptable when the research is designated as minimal risk, the information would not affect the decision to participate, and the information will be provided later. Actively misrepresenting information about the nature of a study is deception. Withholding information is sometimes referred to as passive deception. Active deception is actively providing misinformation about the nature of a study.  Ethical Guidelines 31 Debriefing occurs after completion of the study and includes an explanation of the purposes of the research. It is an opportunity for the researcher to deal with issues of withholding information, deception, and potential harmful effects of participation. Debriefing has been found to be an effective way of dealing with ethical issues that arise in research. At least in some circumstances, it must be thorough. Debriefing is part of a researcher’s obligation to treat participants with dignity and respect.  Ethical Guidelines 1) Falsificatio Research Misconduct > ¨ Three categories of research misconduct: Plagiarism fabrication 3) Data Data fabrication: Making up data or results and reporting on them. Falsification: Manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record. Plagiarism: Appropriating another person’s ideas, processes, results, or words without giving appropriate credit. ¨ Honest errors and differences of scientific opinion do not constitute research misconduct.  Ethical Guidelines 33 Guide for avoiding plagiarism in writing.  Week 2 34 Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods