Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences PDF

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  1. Find a Research Idea:...

Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203  1. Find a Research Idea: Select a Topic and Search the Literature to Find an Unanswered Question Identify a general topic that you would like to explore and review the background literature to find a specific research idea or question. 10. Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea 2. Form a Hypothesis Use the results to modify, refine, or expand Form a hypothesis, or tentative answer, your original research idea, or to to your research question. generate new ideas. 9. Report the Results 3. Determine How You Will Define and Use the established guidelines for format Measure Your Variables and style to prepare an accurate and Identify the specific procedures that will be honest report that also protects the used to define and measure all variables. anonymity and confidentiality of Plan to evaluate the validity and reliability the participants. of your measurement procedure. 4. Identify the Participants or Subjects 8. Evaluate the Data for the Study, Decide How They Will Be Use the appropriate descriptive and Selected, and Plan for Their Ethical inferential statistics to summarize and Treatment interpret the results. Decide how many participants or subjects you will need, what characteristics they should have,and how they will be selected. Also plan for their ethical treatment. 5. Select a Research Strategy 7. Conduct the Study Consider internal and external Collect the data. validity and decide between an experimental and a descriptive, correlational, nonexperimental, or quasi-experimental strategy. 6. Select a Research Design Decide among between-subjects, within-subject, factorial or single-case designs. The Steps in the Research Process Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Edition 6 Research Methods the Behavioral Sciences for © Nathan Jasowiak / Shutterstock FREDERICK J GRAVETTER The College at Brockport, State University of New York Lori-Ann B. Forzano The College at Brockport, State University of New York Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  This is an electronic version of the print textbook. 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Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Research Methods for the Behavioral © 2018, 2016 Cengage Learning, Inc. ­Sciences, Sixth Edition Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage. Frederick J. Gravetter and Lori-Ann B. Forzano ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced or distributed in any form or Product Director: Marta Lee-Perriard by any means, except as permitted by U.S. copyright law, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  B R I E F CONT E NT S Preface xvii About the Authors xxv 1 Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method 1 2 Research Ideas and Hypotheses 29 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 51 4 Ethics in Research 81 5 Selecting Research Participants 109 6 Research Strategies and Validity 127 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157 8 Experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 185 9 Experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 211 10 The Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Strategies: Nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 237 11 Factorial Designs 265 12 The Correlational Research Strategy 295 13 The Descriptive Research Strategy 313 14 Single-Case Experimental Research Designs 341 15 Statistical Evaluation of Data 373 16 Writing an APA-Style Research Report 421 Appendices A Random Number Table and Instruction 449 B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 453 C Instructions for Using SPSS 481 D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 501 Glossary 511 References 525 Name Index 533 subject Index 535 iii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONT E NT S Preface xvii About the Authors xxv Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, C h A P t E R 1 and the Scientific Method 1 Chapter learning objeCtives 1 Chapter overvieW 2 1.1 Methods of Knowing and Acquiring Knowledge 2 The Method of Tenacity 3 The Method of Intuition 3 The Method of Authority 4 The Rational Method 6 The Empirical Method 7 Summary 9 1.2 The Scientific Method 10 The Steps of the Scientific Method 11 Other Elements of the Scientific Method 14 Science versus Pseudoscience 17 1.3 The Research Process 18 Quantitative and Qualitative Research 18 The Steps of the Research Process 19 Chapter Summary 26 Key Words 26 Exercises 27 Learning Check Answers 27 C h A P t E R 2 research Ideas and hypotheses 29 Chapter learning objeCtives 29 Chapter overvieW 30 2.1 Getting Started: Identifying a Topic Area 31 Common Sources of Research Topics 31 2.2 Searching the Existing Research Literature in a Topic Area 33 v Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. vi  Contents Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature 34 Primary and Secondary Sources 36 The Purpose of a Literature Search 37 Conducting a Literature Search 37 Using Online Databases 39 Using PsycINFO 39 Screening Articles during a Literature Search 40 Ending a Literature Search 41 2.3 Finding an Idea for a Research Study from a Published Research Article 42 Find Suggestions for Future Research 42 Combine or Contrast Existing Results 42 The Components of a Research Article—Critical Reading 42 2.4 Using a Research Idea to Form a Hypothesis and Create a Research Study 45 Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis 45 Using a Hypothesis to Create a Research Study 48 Chapter Summary 49 Key Words 49 Exercises 49 Learning Check Answers 50 C h A P t E R 3 Defining and Measuring Variables 51 Chapter learning objeCtives 51 Chapter overvieW 52 3.1 Constructs and Operational Definitions 52 Theories and Constructs 53 Operational Definitions 54 Limitations of Operational Definitions 54 Using Operational Definitions 55 3.2 Validity and Reliability of Measurement 56 Consistency of a Relationship 57 Validity of Measurement 58 Reliability of Measurement 61 The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 64 3.3 Scales of Measurement 65 The Nominal Scale 66 The Ordinal Scale 66 Interval and Ratio Scales 66 Selecting a Scale of Measurement 68 3.4 Modalities of Measurement 69 Self-Report Measures 70 Physiological Measures 70 Behavioral Measures 70 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS  vii 3.5 Other Aspects of Measurement 72 Multiple Measures 72 Sensitivity and Range Effects 72 Artifacts: Experimenter Bias and Participant Reactivity 73 Selecting a Measurement Procedure 77 Chapter Summary 78 Key Words 78 Exercises 79 Learning Check Answers 80 C h A P t E R 4 ethics in research 81 Chapter learning objeCtives 81 Chapter overvieW 82 4.1 Introduction 83 Ethical Concerns Throughout the Research Process 83 The Basic Categories of Ethical Responsibility 84 4.2 Ethical Issues and Human Participants in Research 84 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Human Participants 84 American Psychological Association Guidelines 87 The Institutional Review Board 97 4.3 Ethical Issues and Nonhuman Subjects in Research 99 Historical Highlights of Treatment of Nonhuman Subjects 100 American Psychological Association Guidelines 100 The Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee 101 4.4 Ethical Issues and Scientific Integrity 102 Fraud in Science 102 Plagiarism 104 Chapter Summary 106 Key Words 106 Exercises 107 Learning Check Answers 107 C h A P t E R 5 Selecting research Participants 109 Chapter learning objeCtives 109 Chapter overvieW 110 5.1 Introduction to Sampling 110 Populations and Samples 111 Representative Samples 113 Sample Size 113 Sampling Basics 115 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. viii  CONTENTS 5.2 Probability Sampling Methods 116 Simple Random Sampling 116 Systematic Sampling 118 Stratified Random Sampling 118 Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling 120 Cluster Sampling 120 Combined-Strategy Sampling 121 A Summary of Probability Sampling Methods 121 5.3 Nonprobability Sampling Methods 122 Convenience Sampling 122 Quota Sampling 123 Chapter Summary 125 Key Words 125 Exercises 126 Learning Check Answers 126 C h A P t E R 6 research Strategies and Validity 127 Chapter learning objeCtives 127 Chapter overvieW 128 6.1 Research Strategies 129 The Descriptive Research Strategy: Examining Individual Variables 130 Strategies That Examine Relationships between Variables 130 The Correlational Research Strategy: Measuring Two Variables for Each Individual 131 Comparing Two or More Sets of Scores: The Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Nonexperimental Research Strategies 132 Nonexperimental and Correlational Research 134 Research Strategy Summary 135 Research Strategies, Research Designs, and Research Procedures 136 Data Structures and Statistical Analysis 137 Summary 138 6.2 External and Internal Validity 138 External Validity 139 Internal Validity 140 Validity and the Quality of a Research Study 141 6.3 Threats to External Validity 142 Category 1: Generalizing across Participants or Subjects 142 Category 2: Generalizing across Features of a Study 144 Category 3: Generalizing across Features of the Measures 145 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS  ix 6.4 Threats to Internal Validity 147 Extraneous Variables 147 Confounding Variables 148 Extraneous Variables, Confounding Variables, and Internal Validity 148 6.5 More about Internal and External Validity 152 Balancing Internal and External Validity 152 Artifacts: Threats to Both Internal and External Validity 152 Exaggerated Variables 153 Validity and Individual Research Strategies 153 Chapter Summary 154 Key Words 155 Exercises 155 Learning Check Answers 156 C H A P T E R 7 The Experimental Research Strategy 157 Chapter Learning Objectives 157 CHAPTER OVERVIEW 158 7.1 Cause-and-Effect Relationships 159 Terminology for the Experimental Research Strategy 160 Causation and the Third-Variable Problem 162 Causation and the Directionality Problem 162 Controlling Nature 163 7.2 Distinguishing Elements of an Experiment 164 Manipulation 165 Control 167 Extraneous Variables and Confounding Variables 168 7.3 Controlling Extraneous Variables 170 Control by Holding Constant or Matching 170 Control by Randomization 172 Comparing Methods of Control 173 Advantages and Disadvantages of Control Methods 174 7.4 Control Conditions and Manipulation Checks 174 Control Conditions 175 Manipulation Checks 177 7.5 Increasing External Validity: Simulation and Field Studies 178 Simulation 179 Field Studies 180 Advantages and Disadvantages of Simulation and Field Studies 180 Chapter Summary 181 Key Words 182 Exercises 182 Learning Check Answers 183 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x  CONTENTS C h A P t E R 8 experimental Designs: Between-Subjects Design 185 Chapter learning objeCtives 185 Chapter overvieW 186 8.1 Introduction to Between-Subjects Experiments 186 Review of the Experimental Research Strategy 187 Characteristics of Between-Subjects Designs 187 Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs 189 8.2 Individual Differences as Confounding Variables 191 Other Confounding Variables 191 Equivalent Groups 192 8.3 Limiting Confounding by Individual Differences 193 Random Assignment (Randomization) 193 Matching Groups (Matched Assignment) 194 Holding Variables Constant or Restricting Range of Variability 195 Summary and Recommendations 195 8.4 Individual Differences and Variability 196 Differences between Treatments and Variance within Treatments 198 Minimizing Variance within Treatments 199 Summary and Recommendations 200 8.5 Other Threats to Internal Validity of Between-Subjects Experimental Designs 201 Differential Attrition 202 Communication between Groups 202 8.6 Applications and Statistical Analyses of Between- Subjects Designs 204 Two-Group Mean Difference 204 Comparing Means for More Than Two Groups 205 Comparing Proportions for Two or More Groups 206 Chapter Summary 208 Key Words 208 Exercises 208 Learning Check Answers 209 C h A P t E R 9 experimental Designs: Within-Subjects Design 211 Chapter learning objeCtives 211 Chapter overvieW 212 9.1 Within-Subjects Experiments and Internal Validity 212 Characteristics of Within-Subjects Designs 212 Threats to Internal Validity of Within-Subjects Experiments 214 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS  xi Separating Time-Related Factors and Order Effects 217 Order Effects as a Confounding Variable 217 9.2 Dealing with Time-Related Threats and Order Effects 219 Controlling Time 220 Switch to a Between-Subjects Design 220 Counterbalancing: Matching Treatments with Respect to Time 220 Limitations of Counterbalancing 222 9.3 Comparing Within-Subjects and Between-Subjects Designs 225 Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs 225 Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs 229 Choosing Within- or Between-Subjects Design 231 Matched-Subjects Designs 231 9.4 Applications and Statistical Analysis of Within- Subjects Designs 233 Two-Treatment Designs 233 Multiple-Treatment Designs 234 Chapter Summary 235 Key Words 235 Exercises 236 Learning Check Answers 236 C h A P t E R 1 0 the nonexperimental and Quasi-experimental Strategies: nonequivalent Group, Pre–Post, and Developmental Designs 237 Chapter learning objeCtives 237 Chapter overvieW 238 10.1 Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 239 The Structure of Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 240 10.2 Between-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs: Nonequivalent Group Designs 242 Threats to Internal Validity for Nonequivalent Group Designs 243 Nonexperimental Designs with Nonequivalent Groups 244 A Quasi-Experimental Design with Nonequivalent Groups 247 10.3 Within-Subjects Nonexperimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs: Pre–Post Designs 249 Threats to Internal Validity for Pre–Post Designs 250 A Nonexperimental Pre–Post Design 250 A Quasi-Experimental Pre–Post Design 251 Single-Case Applications of Time-Series Designs 253 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xii  CONTENTS 10.4 Developmental Research Designs 254 The Cross-Sectional Developmental Research Design 254 The Longitudinal Developmental Research Design 257 10.5 Applications, Statistical Analysis, and Terminology for Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Developmental Designs 260 Application and Analysis 260 Terminology in Nonexperimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Developmental Designs 261 Chapter Summary 262 Key Words 263 Exercises 263 Learning Check Answers 264 C h A P t E R 1 1 factorial Designs 265 Chapter learning objeCtives 265 Chapter overvieW 266 11.1 Introduction to Factorial Designs 267 11.2 Main Effects and Interactions 269 Main Effects 270 The Interaction between Factors 271 Alternative Views of the Interaction between Factors 272 Identifying Interactions 274 Interpreting Main Effects and Interactions 274 Independence of Main Effects and Interactions 276 11.3 Types of Factorial Designs and Analysis 277 Between-Subjects and Within-Subjects Designs 278 Experimental and Nonexperimental or Quasi-Experimental Research Strategies 279 Pretest–Posttest Control Group Designs 281 Higher-Order Factorial Designs 282 Statistical Analysis of Factorial Designs 283 11.4 Applications of Factorial Designs 284 Expanding and Replicating a Previous Study 284 Reducing Variance in Between-Subjects Designs 285 Evaluating Order Effects in Within-Subjects Designs 286 Chapter Summary 292 Key Words 293 Exercises 293 Learning Check Answers 294 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS  xiii C h A P t E R 1 2 the Correlational research Strategy 295 Chapter learning objeCtives 295 Chapter overvieW 296 12.1 An Introduction to Correlational Research 296 Comparing Correlational, Experimental, and Differential Research 297 12.2 The Data and Statistical Analysis for Correlational Studies 298 Evaluating Relationships for Numerical Scores (Interval or Ratio Scales) and Ranks (Ordinal Scale) 299 Evaluating Relationships for Non-Numerical Scores from Nominal Scales 301 Interpreting and Statistically Evaluating a Correlation 303 12.3 Applications of the Correlational Strategy 305 Prediction 305 Reliability and Validity 306 Evaluating Theories 306 12.4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Correlational Research Strategy 307 Relationships with More Than Two Variables 309 Chapter Summary 311 Key Words 311 Exercises 311 Learning Check Answers 312 C h A P t E R 1 3 the Descriptive research Strategy 313 Chapter learning objeCtives 313 Chapter overvieW 314 13.1 An Introduction to Descriptive Research 314 13.2 The Observational Research Design 315 Behavioral Observation 316 Content Analysis and Archival Research 318 Types of Observation and Examples 318 Strengths and Weaknesses of Observational Research Designs 321 13.3 The Survey Research Design 322 Types of Questions 324 Constructing a Survey 327 Selecting Relevant and Representative Individuals 328 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xiv  CONTENTS Administering a Survey 329 Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research 332 13.4 The Case Study Design 334 Applications of the Case Study Design 334 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Case Study Design 336 Chapter Summary 338 Key Words 338 Exercises 338 Learning Check Answers 339 C h A P t E R 1 4 Single-Case experimental research Designs 341 Chapter learning objeCtives 341 Chapter overvieW 342 14.1 Introduction 343 Critical Elements of a Single-Case Experimental Design 344 Evaluating the Results from a Single-Case Study 344 14.2 Phases and Phase Changes 346 Level, Trend, and Stability 347 Changing Phases 350 Visual Inspection Techniques 351 14.3 Reversal Designs: ABAB and Variations 355 Limitations of the ABAB Design 357 Variations on the ABAB Design: Creating More Complex Phase-Change Designs 358 14.4 Multiple-Baseline Designs 361 Characteristics of a Multiple-Baseline Design 361 Component Analysis Designs 364 Rationale for the Multiple-Baseline Design 365 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Multiple-Baseline Design 366 14.5 General Strengths and Weaknesses of Single-Case Designs 368 Advantages of Single-Case Designs 369 Disadvantages of Single-Case Designs 369 Chapter Summary 371 Key Words 372 Exercises 372 Learning Check Answers 372 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  CONTENTS  xv C h A P t E R 1 5 Statistical evaluation of Data 373 Chapter learning objeCtives 373 Chapter overvieW 374 15.1 The Role of Statistics in the Research Process 374 Planning Ahead 375 Statistics Terminology 375 15.2 Descriptive Statistics 377 Frequency Distributions 377 Describing Interval and Ratio Data (Numerical Scores) 379 Describing Non-Numerical Data from Nominal and Ordinal Scales of Measurement 381 Using Graphs to Compare Groups of Scores 382 Correlations 384 Regression 387 Multiple Regression 388 15.3 Inferential Statistics 389 Hypothesis Tests 391 Reporting Results from a Hypothesis Test 395 Errors in Hypothesis Testing 396 Factors That Influence the Outcome of a Hypothesis Test 397 Supplementing Hypothesis Tests with Measures of Effect Size 399 15.4 Finding the Right Statistics for Your Data 403 Three Data Structures 403 Scales of Measurement 404 Category 1: A Single Group of Participants with One Score per Participant 404 Category 2: A Single Group of Participants with Two Variables Measured for Each Participant 405 Category 3: Two or More Groups of Scores with Each Score a Measurement of The Same Variable 407 15.5 Special Statistics for Research 412 The Spearman–Brown Formula 413 The Kuder–Richardson Formula 20 413 Cronbach’s Alpha 414 Cohen’s Kappa 414 Chapter Summary 417 Key Words 418 Exercises 418 Learning Check Answers 420 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xvi  CONTENTS C h A P t E R 1 6 Writing an APA-Style research report 421 Chapter learning objeCtives 421 Chapter overvieW 422 16.1 The Goal of a Research Report 422 16.2 General APA Guidelines for Writing Style and Format 423 Some Elements of Writing Style 423 Guidelines for Typing or Word Processing 427 Manuscript Pages 427 16.3 The Elements of an APA-Style Research Report 428 Title Page 428 Abstract 430 Introduction 431 Method 434 Results 436 Discussion 436 References 439 Tables and Figures 441 Appendix 441 Submitting a Manuscript for Publication 441 Conference Presentations: Papers and Posters 444 16.4 Writing a Research Proposal 445 Why Write a Research Proposal? 445 How to Write a Research Proposal 446 Chapter Summary 447 Key Words 447 Exercises 447 Learning Check Answers 448 a p p en d i ce s A Random Number Table and Instruction 449 B Statistics Demonstrations and Statistical Tables 453 C Instructions for Using SPSS 481 D Sample APA-Style Research Report Manuscript for Publication 501 Glossary 511 References 525 Name Index 533 Subject Index 535 Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  P R E FAC E For years, we have watched students come into the psychology research methods course with a fundamental fear of science. Somewhere, these students seem to have developed the idea that psychology is interesting and fun, but science is tedious and difficult. Many students even resent the fact that they have to take a research methods course: “After all, I want to be a psychologist, not a scientist.” As the semester progresses, however, most of these students begin to lose their fears, and many of them actually begin to enjoy the course. Much of this change in attitude is based on a realization that science is simply the technique that psychologists use to gather information and to answer questions. As long as the questions are interesting, then the task of answering them should also be interesting. When people watch a magician do an amazing trick, the common response is to ask, “How was that done?” In the same way, when you learn something interesting about human behavior, you ought to ask, “How do they know that?” The answer is that most of the existing knowledge in the behavioral sciences was gathered using scientific research methods. If you are really curious about human behavior, then you should also be curious about the process of studying human behavior. This textbook is developed from years of teaching research methods. During that time, we tried various examples or explanations in the classroom and observed student response. Over the years, the course evolved into a less intimidating and more interesting approach that is highly effective in getting students interested in research. Our students have been very helpful in this evolutionary process. Their feedback has directed our prog- ress through the development of the research methods course and the writing of this book. In many respects, they have been our teachers. Overview of Text Research Methods for the Behavioral Sciences, sixth edition, is intended for an under- graduate Research Methods course in psychology or any of the behavioral sciences. The overall learning objectives of this book include the following: 1. Describe the scientific method and research process 2. Use research databases to locate and obtain psychology articles relevant to a research topic of interest 3. Analyze and evaluate published research 4. Develop an original research question and hypothesis 5. Define measurement validity and reliability, as well as internal and external validity, and identify the various threats to validity 6. Identify ethical issues pertaining to research in psychology 7. Compare and contrast the various research strategies and designs 8. Identify the descriptive and inferential statistical analyses utilized to interpret and evaluate research 9. Compose an APA-style research report or proposal 10. Critically evaluate secondary sources of scientific information xvii Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xviii  Preface We have organized the text according to the research process, making it appropriate for use in a lecture-only class or a class with a lab component. The text discusses in detail both experimental and nonexperimental research strategies. We use a rather informal writ- ing style that emphasizes discussion and explanation of topics. For each chapter, pedagog- ical aids include chapter learning objectives, chapter overview, a list of chapter sections, learning objectives at the beginning of each section, Learning Check questions at the end of each section, a running glossary, a chapter summary and a list of Key Words, and a set of end-of-chapter exercises that are identified by learning objectives. Organization of Text Overall, the book is organized around the framework of the research process—from start to finish. This step-by-step approach emphasizes the decisions researchers must make at each stage of the process. The chapters of the text have been organized into five sections. Chapters 1 and 2 focus on the earliest considerations in the research process, presenting an overview of the scientific method and including tips for finding a new idea for research and developing a research hypothesis. Chapters 3–6 focus on the preliminary decisions in the research process, and include information on how to measure variables, maintaining ethical responsibility throughout the research process, selecting participants, and choos- ing a valid research strategy. Chapters 7–9 introduce the experimental research strategy and provide the details of between-subjects and within-subjects experimental designs. Chapters 10–14 present other (nonexperimental) research strategies and their associated research designs, and single-case experimental designs. Chapters 15 and 16 focus on the ending decisions in the research process and include information on how to evaluate, inter- pret, and communicate the results of the research process. Although the chapters are organized in a series that we view as appropriate for a one-semester research methods course, the order of chapters can be varied to meet the requirements of different course instructors. For example, the chapters on statistics and APA style can easily be presented much earlier in the course. Writing Style We have attempted to use a rather informal, conversational style of writing that empha- sizes discussion and explanation of topics rather than a simple “cookbook” presentation of facts. We have found this style to be very successful in our own classes and in our other coauthored textbooks, Essentials of Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. Students find this style very readable and unintimidating. This style is particularly useful for material that students perceive as being difficult, including the topic of this text, research methodology. Pedagogical Aids One item that has received particular attention as we developed this text is the use of a variety of pedagogical aids. Each chapter includes many opportunities for students to interact with the material, rather than simply be passively exposed to the material. In addi- tion, the Learning Checks, and end-of-chapter exercises may be used by the instructor as prepackaged assignments. Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface  xix Each chapter contains the following pedagogical elements: 1. Chapter Learning Objectives: Each chapter starts with a complete list of learning objectives to assist students in recognizing what they should be able to do by the end of the whole chapter. 2. Chapter Overview: Each chapter starts with a brief summary of the contents of the chapter, often in the context of an engaging research example, to prepare and alert students to the material to come. 3. Chapter Outline: To help students see the organization of the material in the chapter, a list of the section titles is presented at the beginning of each chapter. 4. Multiple Sections: Each chapter is divided into multiple sections and subsections that are clearly defined with headings to help break the material down into smaller, more manageable chunks. 5. Learning Objectives: At the beginning of each section, learning objectives are ­identified to assist students in recognizing what they should be able to do by the end of that section. 6. Definitions: Each Key Word used in the text is first bolded. At the end of the paragraph that contains a new Key Word, a clearly identified, concise definition is provided. 7. Examples: Numerous examples are used to illustrate concepts presented in the text. Some examples are hypothetical, but most are selected from interesting current or classic studies in psychology. 8. Boxes: Boxed material, separate from the regular text, is used to offer additional, interesting information to help demonstrate a point. 9. Figures: When appropriate, diagrams or graphs are included to illustrate a point made in the text. 10. Tables: Occasionally, tables are used to present information that may best be commu- nicated in a list or to summarize material. 11. Margin Notes: Where appropriate, brief notes are presented in the text margins. These notes are used to offer reminders or cautions to the students. 12. Learning Checks: At the end of major sections within each chapter, we provide a set of multiple-choice questions to help students test how well they have learned the material in each section. Each Learning Check contains at least one question corre- sponding to each of the learning objectives for that section. Answers are provided. 13. Chapter Summaries: At the end of each chapter, a general summary is presented to help students review the main points of the chapter. 14. Key Words: At the end of each chapter, a list of the Key Words used in the chapter is presented. We list the Key Words in their order of appearance in the chapter so that related terms are grouped together and so that students can spot parts of the chapter that they may need to review. 15. Exercises: At the end of each chapter are questions and activities for students to answer and apply. Each exercise is identified with a specific learning objective. The intent of the exercises is to help students assess how well they have mastered the objectives by having them apply what they have learned. Additionally, the instructor can use the exercises as assignments. Exercise 1 identifies other important terms that are defined in the Glossary. New to This Edition Previous edition users should know that we have tried to maintain the hallmark features of our textbook: the organization of the chapters and topics (around the research process), the tone of text (student-friendly, conversational), and the variety of pedagogical aids Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xx  Preface (chapter overviews, Learning Objects per section, multiple-choice Learning Checks (for each Learning Objective) per section, end-of-chapter exercises linked to Learning Objec- tives, bold terms, definitions, interesting research examples, end-of-chapter summaries, keyword lists, etc.). Changes Throughout the Book As with each new edition, we continue to strive to edit each edition to enhance the clarity of material—making changes to wording, organization, trying to be as clear as possible for students to understand. To reduce some redundancy between the previous edition’s Chapter Previews and Chapter Overviews, these sections have now been combined into the Chapter Overview. The emphasis is on piquing students’ interest, often by discussing an interesting research example, and putting them in the “mind-set” for the material to come in the chapter. Throughout the book, research examples have been updated, not only to clearly illus- trate concepts but also always with an eye toward selecting examples that are of particular interest and relevance to college students. End-of-chapter Exercises and Engagement Activities have been combined into one Exercises section. Almost all end-of-section Learning Checks and end-of-chapter exercises have been revised or replaced, always with a minimum of one question per learning objective. To be more socially inclusionary, we have removed and replaced most bivariate gen- der examples. This Research Methods book has been modified to have the same “look and feel” as our Essentials of Statistics book, enabling a more seamless transition between from statis- tics to research methods courses. Additional Chapter-by-Chapter Revisions Chapter 1. Deleted Box 1 to reduce size of the chapter. Greatly streamlined the section on the Rational Method. In Step 1 of the research process, more clearly distinguished between a general topic and a specific research idea. Chapter 2. As in Chapter 1, we increased the distinction between identifying a general topic/idea and finding a specific research idea/question. Also, like newly done in Chapter 1, distinguishing between hypothesis and predictions and how steps 3 & 4 (Making the study) are needed for the prediction. Sections 2.1 and 2.2 have been reorganized and rewritten to distinguish between part 1, topic, and 2, reviewing literature for idea, by reframed the necessity of reviewing the literature—including a new analogy of “joining the research conversation.” A new research example and figure help students to think critically about the primary, empirical journal articles they are reading (with the help of critical thinking column of table also), so that they can extend research and create new research ideas. Chapter 3. Clarified the concept of an operational definition and its limitations. Sim- plified the discussion of observer error as a component of measurement. Clarified the dis- tinctions between the different scales of measurement. Chapter 4. Expanded the description of the three basic principles of the Belmont Report, including examples of violations of each from unethical research, and notes about parallels of these principles with the APA Ethics Code. The sections on ethical guide- lines for research with humans and nonhumans were updated in accordance with the APA current 2010 with new 2017 APA ethical standards amendments (section 3.04). Citations and website locations for all updated guidelines throughout the chapter are now included. Added recent, interesting fraud example of Diederick Stapel (with over 30 published papers found to be fraudulent). Added additional safeguard to protect from fraud, that Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materi