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Powerpoints Achievement Goal Theory - Elliot & McGregor, 2001 - Achievement goals represent competence-relevant aims that individuals adopt and pursue in achievement situations including the workplace Achievement goals of leaders Performance goals - Focus on the other referenced competence issues -...

Powerpoints Achievement Goal Theory - Elliot & McGregor, 2001 - Achievement goals represent competence-relevant aims that individuals adopt and pursue in achievement situations including the workplace Achievement goals of leaders Performance goals - Focus on the other referenced competence issues - Relative competence may be an important and crucial factor - Leaders may feel threatened and criticized Mastery goals - Develop and gain competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new situation - See creative input as a useful source of diagnostic information Conclusion - Leaders play an important role of the fate of creative ideas - Employees should voice ideas considerately - Leaders should try to focus on content - Organizations should stimulate a mastery climate (self-improvement and self-referent performance standards) The pygmalion effect Our beliefs influence our actions and impact other beliefs causes other actions reinforce our beliefs. What is consulting and giving advice? “... You are consulting any time you are trying to change or improve a situation but have no direct control over the implementation…” - Peter Block, 1981 “... Management consulting is an advisory service contracted for an provided to organization by specially trained and qualified persons who assist, in an objective and independent manner, the client organization to identify management problems, analyze such problems, recommend solutions to these problems, and help, when requested, in the implementations of solutions” - Larry Greiner & Robert Metzger, 1983 Goals of consulting according to Kubr - 2002 - Help organizations achieve their goals - Find solutions for management problems - Identify and exploit new opportunities - Enhance organizational learning - Change implementation Consulting Roles according to Schein - 1990 - Three models of helping: - Expert, presupposes that: - The client is fully aware of own problems, needs and objectives - - The client can communicate them The client knows exactly which consultant to hire The client is able to implement solutions The client defines the service the consultant has to offer - Doctor-patient, presupposes that: - Client may not be fully aware of own problems/objectives, yes identifies a ‘sick-area’ - Client reveals all information required for diagnosis - After diagnoses consultant knows more than the client - After diagnoses the consultant tells the client how to reach the objectives (therapy) - The client has to implement the solution (and can give wrong information) - Process consultation, presupposes even less, rather the ideal is: - Joint diagnosis - joint development of solution - Client is the problem owner - The consultant does not know the answers… - … but helps to find the right questions with client - Facilitates and enhances learning rather than client-dependency - Client needs time to get use to surprising results Schein’s message: conditions for expert and doctor role rarely met, therefore more process consultation. - Process consultant interventions: - Explorative inquiry: Tell me… what do you have in mind - Diagnostic: Why do you think that… - Action-alternatives: potential solutions done/considered by client already - Confrontive: bringing in new ideas without becoming expert/doctor through alternatives, hypotheses, possibilities. Classical/functionalist perspective - Schein & Saxton - Consultants develop and deliver professional/expert knowledge to help organizations in addressing their problems - Focus on effective and validated methods Popular journalist criticism - Focus on revealing critical factions, opinions, experiences ets. of consultancy in the broader society - Critical newspaper articles and books showing danger of failures, negative consequences for employees, while increasing MCs turnover - These accounts are often playful and non-threatening. A form of cynicism that rather that truly resits more confirms the status quo Critical perspective - Problematization of (1) consultancy as profession and (2) the nature of knowledge for their services, (3) outcomes/results - Focus on impression management and rhetorical strategies of consultants to support their knowledge claims and enhance their business Sturdy - 2009 - Rationalizers (cutting staff members) - Ideologues/imperialist (rational capitalist white male) - Money wasters (comfort blanket and/or legitimator) - Ideas lack substance & novelty (theoretical with doctors) - Self interested, arrogant and parasitic - Lack accountability and responsibility (who is/should be) - Transparency of power & legitimacy of responsibilities - Consultocracy Kieser - 2002 “...it is pretty obvious that managers are becoming increasingly receptive to management fashions and consulting” Peterson - 1972 A fashion perspective: “...elements of culture do not sprint forth full blown but are made somewhere by someone” Other research: managers as passive and vulnerable clients Clark & Salaman - 1998 “Managers… are conceived largely as passive docile consumer or gurus’ ideas and recommendations, inherently vulnerable to gurus’ blandishments, anxiously searching for reassurance and support.” Sorge & van Witteloostuijn - 2004 “Managers will therefore typically develop a strong interest in insights and recipes that are punchy, succinct, explicit, and plausible. The shelves of bookshops are filled with the next generation of management guru bestsellers for tired, bored, or frustrated managers hungry for vision and cookbook recipes. Packaging of ideas: Positive attitudes of managers related to theoretical elements such as: a. b. c. d. e. f. g. Promises of (significant) performance improvement (greed) Threat of bankruptcy (fear) Using well known and successful companies Universal applicability Easily understandable Timely, innovative & future oriented Interpretative viability - Ambiguity offers scope for interpretation: - Any concept must lend itself for various interpretations to stand a chance of broad dissemination Implications for studying management ideas - Decoupling of discourse and organizational changes - Different responses - Wrap up - Shein (1990) sees limits (still advantages) in the effectiveness of export and doctor patient roles yet prefers the process role - Clients primarily seen as relatively gullible victims of sophisticated persuasive practices performed by consultants and consultants as culprits - Can clients also not be tactical though, to let consultants “rubber stamp” decisions as they are increasingly knowledgeable and professional ex consultants; change management experience Understand the central message of the three article, yet also how they speak to each other and their similarities/differences You can see Schein as fairly positive article and Kieser and Sturdy as a set of two fairly critical articles Strategy context Content and context 5 Forces model PEST(EL) Political factors - P - Government policy - Political stability - Corruption - Foreign trade policy - Tax policy - Labour law - Trade restrictions Economic factors - E - Economic growth - Exchange rates - Interest rates - Inflation rates - Disposable income - Unemployment rates Social factors - S - Populations growth - Age distribution - Career attitudes - Safety emphasis - Health consciousness - Lifestyle attitudes - Cultural barriers Technological factors - T - Technology incentives - Level of innovation - Automation - R&D activity - Technological change - Technological awareness Porter’s Five Forces model Bargaining power of buyers - Number of customers - Size of each customer order - Differences between competitors - Price sensitivity - Buyer’s ability to substitute - Buyer’s information availability - Switching costs Bargaining power of suppliers - Number and size of suppliers - Uniqueness of each supplier’s product - Focal company’s ability to substitute Threat of new entrants - Barrier to entry - Economies of scale - Brand loyalty - Capital requirement - Cumulative experiences - Government policies - Access to distribution channels - Switching costs Threat of substitute products - Number of substitute products available - Buyer propensity to substitute - Relative price performance of substitute - Perceived level of product differentiation - Switching costs Rivalry among existing competitors - Number of competitors - Diversity of competitors - Industry concentration - Industry growth - Quality differences - Brand loyalty - Barriers to exit - Switching costs Why do firms needs strategy? - For competitive advantage The essence of strategy is choosing to perform activities differently then rivals do - Michael porter, 1996 Yet, a sustained competitive advantage is not just doing things differently but also making sure that competitors are unable to duplicate the strategy - Jay Barney, 1991 Competitive advantage Generic Business Strategies Strategic management ‘The field of strategic management deals with the major intended and emergent initiatives taken by general managers on behalf of owners involving utilization of resources, to enhance the performance of firms in their external environments’ Nag et al., 2007 Definitions differ among different research fields - Economics, Sociology, Marketing, Management But what are the similarities? - Strategic initiatives, internal organization, managers & owners, resources, performance and environment 10 schools of strategic management Conclusion Theory of planned behavior (TPB) Reason for change? - External or internal reason for change? - Threat or opportunity? - Current pain or future pain? Change: “Deliberate activities that move organization away from it present state toward some desired future state to increase its effectiveness, Harigopal, 2006 Types of planned organizational change Success rate of planned organizational change is 33% Kurt Lewin: change model Kotter’s 8 step model Kurt Lewin: Field Analysis Model Perspective model for organizational change - Popular models - Prescriptive in nature - Consisting of several steps - Limited empirical studies - Lacking peer review 10 general ‘success factors’ of change models 1. Asses the opportunity or problem motivating the change 2. Select and support a guiding coalition 3. Formulate a clear compelling vision 4. Communicate the vision 5. Mobilize energy for change 6. Empower others to act 7. Develop and promote change-related knowledge and ability 8. Identify short-term wins and us a reinforcement 9. Monitor and strengthen the change process 10. Institutionalize change in company culture, practices and management succession Scientific assessments of 10 general ‘success factors’ 1. Assess the opportunity or problem motivating the change a. Research underscores importance of good diagnosis b. Understanding and sensemaking of threat/opportunity c. Creating sense of urgency is risky (fear, rigidity, avoidance) 2. Select and support a guiding coalition a. Limited research on guiding coalition b. Identify reformers to correspond with beliefs recipients c. Coalition influential employees can help signal consensus 3. Formulate a clear compelling vision a. Research underscores the importance of formulating attractive goals b. Individual endorsement of vision differs depending on its compatibility with existing beliefs and their views of the favorability 4. Communicate the vision a. Research underscores importance multichannel strategy b. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation c. Importance of trust in management d. Explanation of ‘bad news’ positively affects reactions (perceived justice!) 5. Mobilize energy for change a. Limited research on role of time b. Change history: past change success -> positive attitude now c. Invest in change readiness implementation skills of managers d. Interventions: Ability, Motivation and Opportunity to practice 6. Empower others to act a. Research underscores importance participation change process b. Support bottom/up initiatives 7. Develop and promote change related knowledge and ability a. TDB emphasizes importance of ability for behavioral change b. Uncertainty regarding change hampers learning and motivation c. Learning -> Self-efficacy -> Motivation for change d. Facilitate learning process, create psychological safety 8. Identify short-term wins and use as reinforcement a. Different metrics (management vs employees; process vs outcomes) b. Metrics the reflect progress on important change mechanisms (e.g. learning) may serve as lead indicators for outcomes that take longer time to manifest 9. Monitor and strengthen the change process a. Research underscores importance monitoring and feedback b. Well-timed adjustments reduce stress and increase sense of control 10. Institutionalize change in company culture, practices and management succession a. Limited research on institutionalizing change b. Creating routines embedded in organizations introduce and sustain change Insights from scientific literature - Micro: Individual-level findings regarding change recipients - Predispositions toward change; affecting recipient motivation; perceptions of fairness - Meso: Interpersonal, group, and intergroup-level findings - Leadership competency; trust in leaders; the nature of change itself; readiness of organization for change Resistance to change defined - Was originally defined as: “a restraining force moving in the directions of maintaining the status quo” - And often viewed as: “Irrational, counter-productive behavior engaged in by minority of workers to the inevitable detriment of the organization” - However, is more recently defines as: “A tri-dimensional (negative) attitude towards change, which included affective cognitive, and behavioral components” - Oreg, 2006, Piderit, 2000 Results Personality - Dispositional resistance had effect on affective resistance and behavioral resistance Context - Power of prestige had effect on cognitive resistance - Jobs security has effect on affective resistance - Intrinsic rewards has effect on affective resistance and cognitive resistance - trust in management has effect on affective resistance, behavioral resistance and cognitive resistance - Information has effect on behavioral resistance and cognitive resistance - Social influence has effect on affective resistance and behavioral resistance Resistance to change - Affective resistance has effect on job satisfaction - Behavioral resistance has effect on intention to quit - Cognitive resistance has effect on continuance commitment The job satisfaction, intention to quit and continuance commitment are work-related outcomes Context Variables Affects Affective Resistance Affects Behavioral Resistance Affects Cognitive Resistance Dispositional Resistance to Change Positive (.38) Positive (.14) N/A Power and Prestige N/A N/A Negative (-.17) Job Security Positive (.27) N/A N/A Intrinsic Rewards Positive (.19) N/A Negative (-.27) Trust in Management Negative (-.13) Negative (-.15) Negative (-.24) Information N/A Negative (-.23) Negative (-.28) Social Influence Negative (-.17) Positive (.15) N/A Conclusions - Different forms of resistance can indicate different types of antecedents - Needs different strategies for alleviating resistance - Different forms of resistance are related to different work-related outcomes A model of culture - 1 - Culture is multilayered (Ed Schein) - Outer Layer: Explicit culture, shows itself in artifacts and products A model of culture - 2 - However, the reasons for explicit culture (behavior, clothes, food,... might differ across culture. - Second layer: culture as shared norms and values, provide the reasons for explicit culture. A model of culture - 3 - Inner layer: Implicit culture = basic assumptions that are no longer conscious - Basic assumptions are norms that have become values - things that you should do become things you like to do Norm: what we should do Value: what we like to do Changing organizational culture? - Culture is an abstraction (incl. structure, processes, values, etc) - ‘We cannot say that the culture itself is a problem’, Schein 2017 - Be precise and concrete: what do you want to change and why? - First identify the ‘pain’ - E.g. decreasing revenues, client complaints, high work pressure - Then apply a well-thought-out step-by-step plan for the change process, taking into account the organizational culture Defining entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial behavior - Suppose you have a nice idea for a new product or service (or Paas or SaaS) business model. However you need to invest money to start. How can you be sure that there is a market? Taking measured risk through Lean Startup - The main ideas are: - Loop: Ideas -> Build -> Measure -> Learn -> Ideas (repeat) 1. Start with idea of what others need/want 2. Build a minimum viable product/service 3. Measure and test assumptions 4. Learn - Pivot idea, restart loop Taking measured risk through Lean Startup If a similar idea to yours already exists in the market, you can use these as a quick and simple way to gather feedback. You might ask customers to sign-up and give you feedback on a competitor's website, or repackage an existing product. This is especially effective when selling physical products, or showing early static mockups. Example: In the early days of Zappos, the founder simply purchased shoes as needed from local shoe retailers, instead of stocking their own inventory, This allowed zappos to test their idea fast and cheap, before investing in their own inventory. In order to test whether your customers will actually purchase your products, and for how much, you can deploy a simulated “purchase now” experience. This may take the form of a simple e-commerce check out, or perhaps a letter of intent request. Once the user begins the purchase process, you can simply respond with an “out of stock” message, or another elegant way to proceed such as simply not billing the customer at all. Example: You will encounter this strategy when the team designed a website for selling a subscription-based physical product. To gauge interest, the team quickly created a web-based purchase from stimulating the check-out process, so the customer believed they were purchasing the prodHowever, no billing occurred since the form did not connect to payment processing… uct. Defining social entrepreneurship - Adopting a mission to create and sustain goal value (not just private value) - Recognizing and relentlessly pursuing new opportunities that serve that mission - Engaging in a process of continuous innovation, adaptation and learning - Acting boldly without being limited by resources currently in hand - Exhibiting heightened accountability to the constituencies served and for the outcomes created How is social entrepreneurship different from commercial entrepreneurship? - Austin et al, 2006 1. Mission (impact) first 2. Resource mobilization 3. Performance measurement How is social enterprise in NL different from social entrepreneurship? Primarily has a social mission: impact first! Realizes that as an independent company provides a service or product; Is financially self sufficient, based on trade or other forms of value exchange, and thus limited or not dependent on donations or subsidies; in social in the way the company is conducted: - Profit is allowed, but the financial goals are at the service of the mission, to increase the social impact. Profit by any shareholder is reasonable. - Governance and policy are based on a balanced control of all parties involved - Fair to everyone - Aware of its ecological footprint - Is transparent Diversity and inclusion: Relatives but not the same Diversity refers to the composition of work units (workgroup, team, department, organization, occupation) in terms of the cultural and/or demographic characteristics that are salient and symbolically meaningful in the relationships among group members. - DiTomaso 2007 Inclusion is the degree to which an employee perceivers that they are an esteemed member of the work group through experiencing treatment that makes them feel that they belong and that their unique contributions matters - Shore 2011 Social identity theory (Tajfel and turner, 1986) Categorization -> Identification -> Comparison Stereotypes “individuals set of belief about the characteristics or attributes of a group” - Quadflieg & Macrae, 2011 Social categorization crucial for stereotyping: people get individually judged based on their apparent group membership(s) Stereotypes serve two functions - Efficiency (as accurate as possible with least amount of effort) - Self-affirmation (regulate and boost self-esteem) Stereotypes can be powerful drives of our attitudes and behavior. Best diversity practices Inclusion-exclusion in organizations Differentiation: you are not treated as an organizational insider socially excluded but your unique characteristics are seen as valuable and required for group.organization success. Inclusion: you are treated as an insider AND encouraged to contribute your uniqueness; you feel safe in being and expressing yourself. Innovative decision making most likely. Exclusion: you are not treated as an organizational insider with unique value in the work group but there are other employees who are insiders. Assimilation: you are treated as an insider in the work group as long as you conform to organizational/dominant culture norms; uniqueness downplayed (often because of low states) Best inclusion practices 1. Fairly implemented employment practices - a work environment free of discrimination 2. Cultural integration of diverse identities - openness towards various identities within and between individuals; differences are acknowledged and valued 3. Inclusion in decision making - diverse perspectives of employees are actively sought and integrated, even if expressed ideas might upset the status quo Climate for inclusion: Managing diversity internationally - going back to the basic definition - Diversity refers to the composition of work units (workgroup, team, department, organization, occupation) in terms of the cultural and/or demographic characteristics that are salient and symbolically meaningful in the relationships among group members - DiTomaso 2007 National institutions shape meaning of diversity - Institutional theory - Kostova, 1999 - Cognitive: - Concepts and knowledge - Discourse - Regulative - Laws and policies - Labor market, employment relations - Normative - Values and norms - Cultural peculiarities How do multinational designs and implement their DiM practices? Learning goals: 1. To understand, describe and explain psychological foundations of diversity and inclusion management. 2. To critically analyze, reflect and evaluate on diversity and inclusion practices in organizations. 3. To be able to identify and analyze the challenges of managing diversity and inclusion in international organizations. Articles Article 1 Pygmalion and employee learning: the role of leader behaviors The detailed analysis of Bezuijen et al. (2009) regarding "Pygmalion and Employee Learning: The Role of Leader Behaviors" reveals an intricate exploration of the Pygmalion effect within organizational settings, focusing on leader behaviors that mediate the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. General Questions The overarching question Bezuijen et al. aimed to address was how leader expectations influence employee engagement in learning activities and, specifically, which leader behaviors serve as mediators in this process. Employee engagement in learning activities was conceptualized as discretionary behaviors in ongoing learning activities to master new knowledge, skills, and abilities. This inquiry was situated in the context of the increasing importance of employee learning for maintaining organizational effectiveness, underpinned by the assumption that leaders' expectations and behaviors play a crucial role in fostering an environment conducive to learning. Main Hypotheses Based on Rosenthal's Pygmalion model, Bezuijen et al. proposed several hypotheses: Leader expectations positively relate to employee engagement in learning activities. LMX relationship mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Goal specificity mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Goal difficulty mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Providing learning opportunities mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Feedback mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Outcomes The findings from the study revealed that leader expectations were indeed related to employee engagement in learning activities, confirming Hypothesis 1. Among the potential mediators, goal specificity, goal difficulty, and providing learning opportunities were found to mediate this relationship, supporting Hypotheses 3, 4, and 5. These mediators suggest that goal-setting and providing learning opportunities are central mechanisms through which leaders can influence employees' engagement in learning, highlighting the importance of explicit, challenging goals and the availability of learning resources. Contrary to expectations, LMX did not mediate the relationship between leader expectations and learning engagement, nor did feedback, leading to the rejection of Hypotheses 2 and 6. The lack of a significant mediating effect for LMX suggests that the quality of the leader-member relationship might not directly influence learning engagement in the manner proposed. Interestingly, feedback was found to have a negative relationship with employee engagement in learning activities when included in the full model, suggesting that feedback might have complex implications for learning engagement, potentially influenced by factors such as feedback delivery, content, and recipients' perceptions. In summary, Bezuijen et al.'s (2009) study enriches the understanding of the Pygmalion effect in organizational settings by delineating the role of specific leader behaviors in fostering employee learning. It underscores the pivotal role of goal setting and the provision of learning opportunities in translating leaders' positive expectations into increased employee engagement in learning activities, while also highlighting areas for future research, particularly concerning the roles of LMX and feedback. Tabel: Hypothesis Description Outcome Implications Confirmed Leader expectations directly influence employee engagement in learning, highlighting the importance of leaders' positive views on employees' capabilities. Hypothesis 2 LMX relationship mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Rejected The quality of the leader-member exchange does not directly mediate learning engagement as expected, suggesting other factors may play a more significant role. Hypothesis 3 Goal specificity mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Confirmed Setting clear and specific goals is a key mechanism through which leaders can foster employee learning, emphasizing the role of goal clarity. Hypothesis 4 Goal difficulty mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Confirmed Challenging goals serve as a mediator, indicating that higher difficulty levels can stimulate more robust engagement in learning. Hypothesis 5 Providing learning opportunities mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Confirmed Availability and provision of learning opportunities are crucial for translating leader expectations into actual learning engagement. Hypothesis 6 Feedback mediates the relationship between leader expectations and employee engagement in learning activities. Rejected Feedback showed a negative relationship, suggesting that its role is more complex and may depend on how feedback is delivered and perceived. Hypothesis 1 Leader expectations positively relate to employee engagement in learning activities. Article 2 The document "How to get radical creative ideas into a leader's mind? Leader's achievement goals and subordinates' voice of creative ideas" by Sijbom, Janssen, and Van Yperen (2015) explores the dynamics between leaders' achievement goals and their receptiveness to subordinates' creative ideas. Here's a detailed breakdown of the general questions, main hypotheses, and outcomes based on the document: General Questions The research primarily investigates how leaders' achievement goals (performance vs. mastery) influence their reactions to radical creative ideas voiced by subordinates. Specifically, it examines whether leaders tend to oppose or adopt these ideas and how the mode of communication (aggressive vs. considerate voice) by subordinates further affects leaders' responses. Main Hypotheses Performance Goals and Opposition to Creative Ideas: Leaders with performance goals are hypothesized to be positively related to opposing radical creative ideas from subordinates. This is because performance-oriented leaders focus on demonstrating competence and may view novel ideas as challenges to their established methods. Mastery Goals and Adoption of Creative Ideas: Leaders who set mastery goals are hypothesized to be positively related to adopting radical creative ideas from subordinates. Leaders with a mastery orientation focus on learning and improvement, making them more open to new ideas that can contribute to knowledge and skills development. The Role of Explorative Interest: It is hypothesized that leaders' explorative interest mediates the relationship between their achievement goals and their reactions to subordinates' creative ideas. This suggests that the willingness to explore new information plays a crucial role in whether leaders oppose or adopt these ideas. Influence of Subordinates' Voice Mode: The study also explores how the mode in which subordinates voice their ideas (aggressive vs. considerate) affects leaders' reactions, particularly for those with performance goals. It is suggested that performance goal leaders are more receptive to ideas presented in a considerate manner. Outcomes The research findings support the hypotheses, revealing that: Leaders with performance goals are more likely to oppose subordinates' radical creative ideas, whereas those with mastery goals are more inclined to adopt such ideas. Explorative interest indeed mediates the relationship between leaders' achievement goals and their responses to creative ideas, highlighting the importance of a leader's interest in exploration for fostering creativity. The mode of voice used by subordinates affects leaders' responses, with performance goal leaders showing a preference for considerate communication. This suggests that how creative ideas are communicated can influence their acceptance. Articles 3,4,5 Central Messages: Schein (Process Consultation): Advocates for a collaborative approach in consulting, emphasizing the importance of process consultation over content consultation to empower organizations to diagnose and solve their own problems. Kieser (Management Ideas): Criticizes the uncritical acceptance and promotion of management ideas through the business press, highlighting the cyclical nature of management fads. Sturdy (Critiques of Consultancy): Discusses popular critiques of management consultancy, suggesting that these critiques, often based on ethical and political concerns, should be integrated into academic discussions to deepen the critique of management practices. Table: Similarities and Differences Aspect Schein Kieser Sturdy Focus Process of consulting Management ideas and their promotion Critiques of management consultancy Main Argument The importance of helping organizations help themselves The problematic cycle of management fads The value of popular critiques in academic discussions View on Consultancy Positive, if focused on process consultation Critical of the role of consultancy in promoting fads Critical, emphasizing ethical and political concerns Methodology Conceptual, with practical examples Analytical critique Analytical critique with emphasis on societal discourse Solution Offered Process consultation as a method for genuine organizational development Calls for critical evaluation of management ideas Integration of public critique into management learning Similarities - Emphasis on the need for critical evaluation in organizational development practices. - Both critique the uncritical acceptance of externally provided solutions. - Share a concern for the deeper implications of consultancy and management ideas on organizations. Differences - Positive view on the potential of consultancy when applied correctly. - Focuses more on the media and press in shaping management practices. - Highlights the role of public discourse in shaping perceptions of consultancy. Summary: While Schein presents a constructive approach to consulting that emphasizes empowerment and self-help within organizations, Kieser and Sturdy offer critical perspectives on the dissemination and impact of management ideas and consultancy practices. Schein’s optimism about the potential for positive change through process consultation contrasts with Kieser's skepticism about the cyclical nature of management ideas and Sturdy's critique of the ethical and political dimensions of consultancy. However, all three articles converge on the necessity for a more critical and reflective approach to management practices and consultancy, suggesting a move towards more meaningful and responsible organizational development. Articles 6,7,8 "Barney (1991) - Firm Resources and Sustained Competitive Advantage" Central Message: The article argues that a firm's resources play a pivotal role in achieving and sustaining competitive advantage. These resources must be valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable. Main Hypotheses: Firms with resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable can achieve sustained competitive advantage. Outcomes: Empirical and theoretical support for the resource-based view (RBV) of the firm, highlighting how internal resources influence a firm's performance in the competitive landscape. “Porter M. (1996) - What is Strategy?" Central Message: Strategy is about choosing unique positions and activities that allow a firm to sustainably compete by creating value. Operational effectiveness, while necessary, is not sufficient for sustainable competitive advantage. Main Hypotheses: Firms achieve sustainable competitive advantage through strategic positioning and unique activity systems, not just operational effectiveness. Outcomes: A clarification of the distinction between operational effectiveness and strategy, emphasizing the importance of making strategic choices that enable differentiation and a sustainable competitive edge. "Nag, Hambrick, and Chen (2007) - What Is Strategic Management Really?" Central Message: This article seeks to provide a consensus definition of strategic management by exploring its conceptual boundaries and core elements. Main Hypotheses: There exists a consensus among scholars regarding the core elements that define the field of strategic management, despite its interdisciplinary nature. Outcomes: Identification of a consensual definition of strategic management, emphasizing its focus on the strategic initiatives, resources, performance, and external environment of firms. Aspect Barney (1991) Porter (1996) Nag, Hambrick, and Chen (2007) Focus Internal resources of the firm Strategic positioning and activities Defining the field of strategic management Central Message Resources within a firm are key to competitive advantage Distinction between operational effectiveness and strategic positioning is crucial Consensus on the core elements of strategic management exists among scholars Main Hypotheses Resources that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable lead to sustained competitive advantage Strategic choices and unique activity systems are essential for competitive advantage A coherent identity for strategic management can be derived from scholarly consensus Outcomes Supports the Resource-Based View Clarifies the concepts of strategy and operational effectiveness Provides a consensus definition of strategic management Similarities - Importance of strategic choices - Focus on achieving competitive advantage - Importance of strategic choices - Focus on achieving competitive advantage - Importance of strategic choices - Focus on achieving competitive advantage Differences - Emphasis on internal resources - RBV as theoretical framework - Emphasis on strategic positioning and activities Critique of equating strategy with operational effectiveness - Emphasis on defining the academic field Interdisciplinary perspectives Articles 9 - Personality, context, and resistance to organizational change Shaul Oreg Main Question: How do personality traits and organizational context influence employees' resistance to organizational change, and what is the relationship between this resistance (affective, behavioral, and cognitive components) and work-related outcomes such as job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention to leave? Hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: Employees' dispositional resistance to change will have significant positive correlations with employees' behavioral and, particularly, their affective resistance to the specific change at hand. Hypothesis 2a: Perceived threats to employees' power will be positively associated with employees' cognitive resistance to change. Hypothesis 2b: Perceived threats to job security will be positively associated with employees' affective resistance to change. Hypothesis 2c: Perceived threats to intrinsic motivation will be positively associated with employees' affective and cognitive resistance to change. Hypothesis 3a: Employees' trust in management will be negatively associated with employees' behavioral resistance to change. Hypothesis 3b: The amount of information that is provided about the change will be negatively associated with employees' behavioral resistance to change. Hypothesis 3c: The extent to which employees' social environment is opposed to the change will be positively associated with employees' behavioral resistance to change. Hypothesis 4: Employees' affective resistance will be negatively related to their job satisfaction. Hypothesis 5: Employees' behavioral resistance will be positively related to their intention to leave the organization. Hypothesis 6: Employees' cognitive resistance will be negatively related to their organizational continuance commitment. Hypothesis Description Outcome Hypothesis 1 Dispositional resistance correlates positively with affective and behavioral resistance. Supported Hypothesis 2a Threats to power and prestige correlate with cognitive resistance. Supported Hypothesis 2b Threats to job security correlate with affective resistance. Supported Hypothesis 2c Threats to intrinsic motivation correlate with both affective and cognitive resistance. Supported Hypothesis 3a Trust in management negatively correlates with behavioral resistance and also affects affective and cognitive resistance negatively. Partially Supported Hypothesis 3b Information about the change was expected to negatively correlate with behavioral resistance. Instead, more information was associated with increased resistance. Not as expected Hypothesis 3c A negative social environment increases behavioral resistance. Supported Hypothesis 4 Affective resistance negatively impacts job satisfaction. Supported Hypothesis 5 Behavioral resistance correlates with higher intention to leave. Supported Hypothesis 6 Cognitive resistance is inversely related to continuance commitment. Supported Article 10 - Successful Organizational Change: Integrating The Management Practice And Scholarly Literatures" by Stouten, Rousseau, and De Cremer (2018) General Questions: The article seeks to address how contemporary organizations can create meaningful and sustainable changes despite prevalent struggles and a lack of accessible consensus on change management processes and principles. It aims to develop an integrative summary of evidence-based steps in managing planned organizational change by reviewing key tenets of widely used practitioner-oriented change models and findings from scholarly research. Main Hypotheses: The article proposes an integrative framework of ten evidence-based steps for managing planned organizational change, derived from a synthesis of practitioner models and scholarly research. These steps aim to provide a foundation for an evidence-based approach to change management, highlighting areas of convergence, contested issues, understudied prescriptions, and underused research findings. Outcomes: The article concludes with the identification of ten empirically supported steps in managing organizational change, along with implications for research and practice. These steps include assessing the opportunity or problem, forming a guiding coalition, creating a vision, communicating the vision, mobilizing energy for change, empowering action, developing change-related knowledge and skills, generating short-term wins, and monitoring and strengthening the change process over time. Detailed Table of Outcomes: Step Description Implication for Practice Implication for Research 1. Assess the Opportunity or Problem Understanding the specific problem or change opportunity Emphasizes the importance of involving stakeholders in the diagnostic process Suggests further research on diagnostic processes and their impact on change success 2. Form a Guiding Coalition Formation of a coalition overseeing the change process Highlights the need for support from top management and diverse stakeholder involvement Calls for empirical studies on the role and effectiveness of guiding coalitions 3. Create a Vision Development of a compelling expression of the change's end goal Stresses the importance of a vision that is accessible, memorable, and addresses stakeholders' interests Suggests research on the characteristics of visions that foster shared understanding 4. Communicate the Vision Ensuring the vision is widely known and understood Advocates for multichannel communication strategies and managerial role modeling Points to the need for studies on effective communication strategies during change 5. Mobilize Energy for Change Planning change implementation across the organization Emphasizes learning new skills and the importance of readiness assessments Highlights the lack of systematic attention to change interventions' effectiveness 6. Empower Action Encouraging initiative and proactive change-related behaviors Focuses on removing obstacles and supporting autonomy Calls for research on empowerment strategies and their impact on change acceptance 7. Develop Change-Related Knowledge and Ability Facilitating learning of new skills and knowledge Stresses the need for resources and psychological readiness for skill development Suggests examining the relationship between learning opportunities and change success 8. Generate Short-Term Wins Reinforcing change progress with early successes Underlines the importance of meaningful goals and clear communication of progress Points to the need for research on the effects of short-term wins on long-term change outcomes 9. Monitor and Strengthen the Change Process Ongoing investment in and adjustment of the change process Advocates for regular monitoring and feedback to adapt change plans as needed Suggests research on monitoring practices and their effectiveness in supporting change Article 11 - Organizational culture and leadership - Shein 2010 (Chapter 2) The document provides a detailed analysis of the concept of organizational culture by examining it at three different levels: Artifacts, Espoused Beliefs and Values, and Basic Underlying Assumptions. This structure helps in understanding how culture manifests within an organization from the most visible levels to the most deeply ingrained beliefs. Let's break down the key points and create a table summarizing the outcomes related to each hypothesis. General Questions: How can culture be analyzed at different levels within an organization? What distinguishes the different levels of culture from each other? Main Hypotheses: Artifacts: The most visible level of culture includes tangible, overt manifestations such as architecture, language, technology, and rituals. Artifacts are easy to observe but difficult to decipher without deeper cultural understanding. Espoused Beliefs and Values: This level consists of ideals, goals, values, and ideologies that members of the culture profess. These beliefs and values may or may not be congruent with observed behavior and artifacts. They serve as the day-to-day operating principles guiding members' behavior. Basic Underlying Assumptions: The deepest level of culture, encompassing unconscious, taken-for-granted beliefs, and values that determine behavior, perception, thought, and feeling. These assumptions are so deeply embedded that they are nonnegotiable and treated as reality by group members. Outcomes: The document suggests that understanding the different levels of culture is crucial for accurately interpreting the behaviors, beliefs, and values within an organization. The essence of culture lies in the pattern of basic underlying assumptions. To truly understand a group's culture, one must attempt to uncover these shared basic assumptions. Summary Table of Hypotheses and Outcomes: Level Hypothesis Outcome Artifacts Visible manifestations of culture are easy to observe but hard to interpret. Understanding requires knowledge of deeper cultural levels. Espoused Beliefs and Values Professed ideals and values guide day-to-day behavior, but may not align with deeper assumptions or observed behaviors. Identifying congruence or discrepancies between espoused values and behavior is key to understanding culture. Basic Underlying Assumptions The core of culture consists of deeply embedded, unconscious beliefs that are nonnegotiable. Uncovering these assumptions is essential for a comprehensive understanding of culture's influence on behavior and organizational dynamics. Article 12 - Social and commercial entrepreneurship - Austin, Stevenson & Wei-Sillkern 2006 Based on the detailed exploration in "Social and Commercial Entrepreneurship: Same, Different, or Both?" by James Austin, Howard Stevenson, and Jane Wei-Skillern, we can extract and organize the general questions, main hypotheses, and outcomes of their comparative analysis between commercial and social entrepreneurship. Here's a structured summary of these elements, followed by a table summarizing the outcomes related to the hypotheses: General Questions: The article seeks to understand how commercial and social entrepreneurship compare and contrast across various dimensions. Specifically, it explores whether elements applicable to business entrepreneurship are transferable to social entrepreneurship and vice versa. Main Hypotheses: Market Failure: Market failure creates different entrepreneurial opportunities for social and commercial entrepreneurship. Social enterprises often emerge to address needs that the market fails to meet. Mission: The mission is a fundamental distinguishing feature between social and commercial entrepreneurship, influencing enterprise management and personnel motivation. Resource Mobilization: Human and financial resource mobilization presents a prevailing difference, leading to fundamentally different approaches in managing resources. Performance Measurement: The measurement of social impact remains a fundamental differentiator for social entrepreneurship, complicating accountability and stakeholder relations. Outcomes: The analysis highlights key similarities and differences between commercial and social entrepreneurship, emphasizing the unique challenges and strategies within social entrepreneurship. It suggests that while commercial entrepreneurship primarily focuses on economic returns, social entrepreneurship aims to create social value. Moreover, the study points out the complexities involved in measuring the impact and performance of social enterprises compared to their commercial counterparts. Summary Table of Hypotheses and Outcomes: Hypothesis Description Outcome Market Failure Market failure leads to different opportunities in social vs. commercial entrepreneurship. Confirmed: Social enterprises often emerge to address unmet needs, differentiating them from commercial ventures. Mission Mission differences fundamentally distinguish social from commercial entrepreneurship. Confirmed: Social entrepreneurship's focus on social value creation contrasts with the economic focus of commercial ventures. Resource Mobilization Challenges in mobilizing resources differentiate social from commercial entrepreneurship. Confirmed: Social entrepreneurs face unique challenges in accessing capital and talent, requiring innovative approaches. Performance Measurement Measuring social impact is more complex than economic performance, differentiating social entrepreneurship. Confirmed: The complexity of assessing social value creates unique challenges for social entrepreneurs. Article 13 - The promise of entrepreneurship as a field of research - Shane & Venkataraman 2000 The document titled "The Promise of Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research" by Scott Shane and S. Venkataraman proposes a conceptual framework for the field of entrepreneurship. This framework aims to address the lack of a unified theory in entrepreneurship research and to clarify the unique contributions of this field to the broader domain of business studies. General Questions: What is entrepreneurship? The document seeks to define entrepreneurship not merely in terms of the actions of entrepreneurs but as a broader field that includes the discovery, evaluation, and exploitation of opportunities to create future goods and services. Why is entrepreneurship important? It explores the significance of entrepreneurship in converting technical information into products and services, mitigating inefficiencies in the economy, and driving innovation and change. Main Hypotheses: Existence of Entrepreneurial Opportunities: Entrepreneurial opportunities exist due to market inefficiencies and information asymmetries, which allow for the discovery and exploitation of new ways to create value. Discovery of Opportunities: Not everyone discovers entrepreneurial opportunities; the discovery is influenced by individuals' prior information and cognitive properties. Exploitation of Opportunities: The decision to exploit discovered opportunities varies among individuals, influenced by their assessment of the opportunity's value, their personal attributes, and external factors. Outcomes: The framework predicts that entrepreneurship research can illuminate how opportunities are identified and exploited, providing insights into the dynamics of innovation, the creation of new industries, and economic growth. It also suggests that entrepreneurship has a critical role in society by transforming technical information into practical applications, thus contributing to societal wealth and well-being. Summary Table of Hypotheses and Outcomes: Hypothesis Description Outcome Existence of Entrepreneurial Opportunities Opportunities arise from market inefficiencies and information asymmetries. A dynamic landscape where new goods and services can be introduced. Discovery of Opportunities Discovery depends on individual differences in information and cognition. Not all individuals will recognize the same opportunities, leading to diversity in entrepreneurial ventures. Exploitation of Opportunities The decision to exploit is influenced by the opportunity's perceived value, individual attributes, and external factors. Variability in the realization of new ventures, with some opportunities pursued more vigorously than others. This conceptual framework by Shane and Venkataraman is instrumental in advancing the understanding of entrepreneurship as a field of research, highlighting its complexity and the multifaceted nature of entrepreneurial activity. It underscores the importance of studying entrepreneurship to gain insights into the mechanisms of economic and social value creation. Article 14 - Why diversity programs fail - Dobbin & Kalev Based on the document "Why Diversity Programs Fail" by Frank Dobbin and Alexandra Kalev, we can extract the general questions, main hypotheses, and outcomes of their analysis on diversity programs within organizations. This detailed exploration includes a table summarizing the outcomes or conclusions drawn from their hypotheses. General Questions: Why do most diversity programs in organizations fail to increase diversity? What approaches to diversity actually work in promoting more inclusive work environments? Main Hypotheses: Traditional diversity programs often backfire and may even decrease organizational diversity. Programs that focus on control, such as mandatory diversity training, hiring tests, and grievance systems, are less effective and sometimes harmful. Engaging managers in solving diversity problems, increasing their contact with female and minority workers, and promoting social accountability lead to better diversity outcomes. Outcomes/Conclusions: Traditional diversity efforts, including mandatory diversity training, hiring tests, and grievance systems, often activate bias or result in a backlash, rather than eliminating it. Conversely, approaches that engage individuals in diversity efforts, increase contact among diverse groups, and leverage social accountability are more successful in promoting diversity. Summary Table of Hypotheses and Outcomes: Hypothesis Description Outcome/Conclusion 1 Traditional diversity programs based on control tactics fail to increase diversity. These programs can activate bias, lead to backlash, and sometimes decrease diversity. 2 Mandatory diversity training, hiring tests, and grievance systems are ineffective. These methods do not sustainably improve diversity; they may actually reinforce biases or deter diversity efforts. 3 Engaging managers in solving diversity problems increases diversity. Programs that involve managers in diversity efforts and problem-solving lead to positive outcomes in diversity. 4 Increasing contact among diverse groups promotes diversity. Initiatives like self-managed teams and cross-training that increase interaction among different groups enhance organizational diversity. 5 Promoting social accountability leads to better diversity outcomes. Transparency and accountability mechanisms, such as diversity task forces and diversity managers, effectively improve diversity. The analysis in the document provides compelling evidence that traditional approaches to diversity often fail because they don't effectively engage individuals or leverage positive incentives for change. Instead, methods that encourage active participation, increase meaningful interaction among diverse employees, and foster a culture of accountability and transparency are more successful in achieving and sustaining diversity within organizations. Article 15 - Inclusive workplaces - Shore, Cleveland & Sanchez, 2018 From the document titled "Inclusive Workplaces: A Review and Model," we can construct the general questions, main hypotheses, and outcomes of the study on organizational inclusion. The authors, Lynn M. Shore, Jeanette N. Cleveland, and Diana Sanchez, offer a comprehensive model integrating various facets of workplace inclusion, which is visually represented in Figure 1 within the document. General Questions: The overarching questions of the study are: What are the key components and outcomes of inclusive workplaces? How do management practices, both promotion-oriented and prevention-oriented, contribute to the degree of organizational inclusion? Main Hypotheses: The hypotheses, as drawn from the thematic model, might include: Management's commitment to diversity and inclusion enhances organizational inclusion. Management's focus on enhancement or prevention of inclusion influences the perceived inclusion and inclusion climate within the organization. Inclusion practices and processes such as psychological safety, involvement in the workgroup, feeling respected and valued, influence on decision-making, authenticity, and recognizing, honoring, and advancing diversity lead to higher perceived inclusion. High perceived inclusion contributes to better retention and expansion of talent. The degree of organizational inclusion impacts the overall inclusion climate, which feeds back into the retention and expansion of talent. Outcomes/Conclusions: The study concludes that inclusive workplaces are achieved through a combination of management's promotion-oriented and prevention-oriented practices. These practices contribute to a high degree of organizational inclusion, which in turn positively affects perceived inclusion, talent retention, and the overall inclusion climate. Summary Table of Hypotheses and Outcomes: Hypothesis Description Outcome/Conclusion 1 Management commitment affects inclusion. Direct impact on enhancement and prevention of inclusion. 2 Management focus influences perceived inclusion. Drives the inclusivity practices and policies. 3 Inclusion practices and processes are core to inclusion. Lead to higher perceived inclusion and positive organizational outcomes. 4 Perceived inclusion affects talent retention and expansion. Essential for maintaining a diverse and committed workforce. 5 Organizational inclusion shapes inclusion climate. A positive climate is conducive to higher retention and talent growth. Key Elements of the Model (Figure 1): The model distinguishes between Management Promotion Orientation and Management Prevention Orientation. Promotion orientation is about actively enhancing inclusion through practices and processes that increase perceived inclusion, while prevention orientation focuses on avoiding exclusion through compliance and management of discrimination. The practices and processes central to inclusion include psychological safety, involvement in the work group, feeling respected and valued, influence on decision-making, authenticity, and recognizing, honoring, and advancing diversity. The outcome of these practices is an inclusion climate that supports retention and expansion of talent. In this comprehensive review, Shore, Cleveland, and Sanchez have created a model that delineates the multifaceted nature of inclusion within organizations and emphasizes the interplay between management orientation, inclusive practices, and the resulting work environment. This model serves as a valuable framework for both academic study and practical application in organizations aiming to create and maintain inclusive workplaces.