Poli 244 - Final Exam Study Guide (1) PDF

1. IR as an Academic Subject What is IR? IR examines interactions among states, non-state actors, international institutions, and individuals within the international system. ​ Focuses on understanding: ○​ Conflict and war ○​ Cooperation and diplomacy ○​ G...

1. IR as an Academic Subject What is IR? IR examines interactions among states, non-state actors, international institutions, and individuals within the international system. ​ Focuses on understanding: ○​ Conflict and war ○​ Cooperation and diplomacy ○​ Global governance and institutions ○​ Economic interdependence ○​ Human rights and transnational issues The Origins of IR as a Discipline ​ Post-WWI Emergence: ○​ WWI’s catastrophic impact led to the formation of IR as a field aimed at understanding and preventing war. ○​ The League of Nations (1919) exemplified early institutional attempts at global governance. ​ Early Thinkers and Theories: ○​ Idealism (Liberalism) dominated early IR, promoting peace through cooperation and international law. ​ Example: Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points promoted self-determination and the League of Nations. ○​ Realists like E.H. Carr challenged this, arguing that power politics and human nature shaped international relations. Diagram: Timeline of IR’s evolution from WWI to the present, highlighting key moments like WWII, the Cold War, and the rise of globalization. 2. Emergence and Predominance of the Sovereign State  What is Sovereignty? ​ Defined as supreme authority within a territory, sovereignty is the foundation of the modern state system. ​ Historical Roots: ○​ The Peace of Westphalia (1648) established sovereignty as a principle, ending religious wars in Europe. ○​ Before Westphalia, political power was fragmented among empires, feudal lords, and the Church. Why Did Sovereign States Prevail? ​ Military Advancements: ○​ States with centralized authority could raise standing armies and levy taxes efficiently. ​ Example: France under Louis XIV centralized control to maintain a powerful army. ​ Economic Developments: ○​ The rise of capitalism required stable governance to regulate trade and property. ​ Example: The Netherlands became a financial hub due to its strong state institutions. Sovereignty in Practice ​ Internal Sovereignty: Authority within a state’s borders (e.g., enforcing laws). ​ External Sovereignty: Recognition by other states as an independent actor. Example of Sovereignty in Crisis: ​ Russia’s annexation of Crimea (2014) violated Ukraine’s sovereignty, sparking international condemnation. Diagram: A comparative chart of political systems before and after the Peace of Westphalia, emphasizing centralization and sovereignty. 3. State Sovereignty and International Anarchy  The Anarchic International System ​ Definition: Lack of a central authority governing state interactions. ​ States operate in a self-help system, prioritizing survival and security. ​ Implications: ○​ Leads to security dilemmas, arms races, and alliance formation. ​ Example: The Cold War nuclear arms race exemplified a security dilemma. Realism and Anarchy ​ Realists argue that anarchy compels states to prioritize power and survival. ​ Neoliberalism’s Take: Cooperation is possible even under anarchy, through institutions and repeated interactions. Example of Anarchy in Action: ​ The US-China rivalry reflects the absence of a central authority to mediate disputes over trade and regional dominance. Diagram: The "Security Dilemma Cycle," showing how defensive actions by one state provoke counteractions by others.  4. State-Centrism in IR Theorizing State as the Primary Actor ​ IR traditionally views states as the most powerful entities in global politics due to: ○​ Monopoly on violence. ○​ Control over resources and economy. ○​ Sovereign authority over territory. Challenges to State-Centrism 1.​ Non-State Actors: ○​ NGOs, corporations, and terrorist groups challenge state dominance. ​ Example: Climate advocacy by Greenpeace influences global policy discussions. 2.​ Globalization: ○​ Interdependence blurs boundaries between domestic and international politics. Diagram: A Venn diagram comparing state and non-state actors in terms of influence over global issues. 5. Levels of Analysis in IR (The Three Images) 1. Individual Level ​ Focuses on leaders and decision-makers. ○​ Example: Hitler’s ideology drove Nazi foreign policy. ​ Strengths: Explains behavior during crises or under unique leadership. ​ Weaknesses: Overlooks structural and systemic factors. 2. State Level ​ Explores how domestic politics, economic systems, and institutions shape foreign policy. ○​ Example: China’s authoritarian regime enables long-term strategic planning.  ​ Strengths: Highlights internal pressures. ​ Weaknesses: Neglects the systemic environment. 3. System Level ​ Examines the distribution of power (e.g., unipolar, bipolar, multipolar systems). ○​ Example: The Cold War bipolarity influenced global alignments. ​ Strengths: Captures overarching trends. ​ Weaknesses: Ignores internal state dynamics. Diagram: A layered pyramid illustrating the three levels of analysis, with real-world examples for each. 6. IR Paradigms: Realism, Neoliberalism, Constructivism, New Liberalism Realism ​ Core Tenets: ○​ States are rational actors in a self-help system. ○​ Power and security are central. ​ Classical Realism (Morgenthau): Human nature drives power struggles. ​ Neorealism (Waltz): Structure of the system dictates state behavior. ○​ Example: US containment of the USSR during the Cold War. Neoliberalism ​ Emphasizes cooperation through institutions. ○​ Example: The EU demonstrates how interdependence fosters peace. Constructivism ​ Focuses on norms, identities, and social constructions. ○​ Example: The Geneva Conventions reflect shared norms about wartime conduct.  New Liberalism ​ Explores how domestic politics shape foreign policy. ○​ Example: US isolationism in the 1930s was driven by domestic public opinion. 7. The Nuclear Proliferation Debate and Deterrence Nuclear Proliferation Debate ​ Optimists: More nuclear states = stable deterrence. ​ Pessimists: Risk of accidents, rogue actors, and escalation. Deterrence vs. Compellence ​ Deterrence: Prevent action through credible threats. ○​ Example: US-Soviet MAD doctrine during the Cold War. ​ Compellence: Coerce a state into action. ○​ Example: The US naval blockade during the Cuban Missile Crisis. Diagram: A flowchart comparing nuclear deterrence and compellence strategies. 8. Bargaining and Cooperation Absolute vs. Relative Gains ​ Absolute Gains: Mutual benefits from cooperation. ○​ Example: Paris Climate Agreement aims for global reductions in emissions. ​ Relative Gains: Focus on outperforming others. ○​ Example: US-China trade rivalry. Game Theory in IR 1.​ Prisoner’s Dilemma: Highlights challenges of trust and cooperation.  2.​ Stag Hunt: Coordination problems in collective action. ​ Example: Standardizing international aviation safety protocols. 9. Soft Power and Soft/Institutional Balancing Soft Power ​ Definition: The ability to shape others’ preferences through attraction rather than coercion or payment. ○​ Example: The United States’ Hollywood industry and cultural influence spread global values, making it an example of soft power. ​ Key Elements: ○​ Cultural diplomacy (movies, music, art) ○​ Political ideals (democracy, human rights) ○​ Foreign policy (peacekeeping, humanitarian aid) Soft Balancing ​ Definition: Non-coercive measures to limit a dominant power's influence, relying on diplomacy and international institutions. ○​ Example: The European Union’s use of institutions like the WTO and diplomatic pressure to counterbalance US unilateral actions post-9/11. Institutional Balancing ​ States balance power by strengthening or forming international institutions rather than directly opposing threats militarily. ○​ Example: The United Nations (UN) and European Union (EU) act as institutional frameworks to manage conflicts and balance power. ○​ Example: NATO as an institutional counterbalance to Russian military expansion in Eastern Europe. 10. Cultures of Anarchy and the Management of International Security Balance-of-Power Systems ​ Balance of Power: A system where no single state or alliance becomes dominant; states form alliances to prevent domination by one state. ○​ Example: The Concert of Europe (1815–1914), where major European powers cooperated to maintain stability and prevent conflict.  ○​ Example: The Cold War balance between the US and the USSR, preventing direct confrontation through mutually assured destruction (MAD). Concert Systems ​ A Concert system involves great powers cooperating through diplomacy to maintain stability. ○​ Example: The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), where European powers negotiated territorial boundaries and maintained peace for a century. Collective Security ​ The idea that aggression by one state will be met with a collective response from all members of an international community. ○​ Example: The League of Nations aimed to ensure collective security, although it was ineffective in preventing WWII. ○​ Example: NATO’s collective security principle, where an attack on one member is considered an attack on all. Security Communities ​ A region where states have developed the habit of resolving disputes without resorting to war. ○​ Example: Western Europe post-WWII, where former adversaries such as France and Germany formed cooperative political and economic institutions to prevent war. 11. Rationalist vs. Sociological Explanations in IR Rationalist (Interest-Based) Explanations ​ Focus on the interests and preferences of states as rational actors. States are assumed to pursue their self-interest and maximize utility. ○​ Example: The United States’ decision to invade Iraq in 2003, based on perceived threats and strategic interests (oil, security). ​ Rational Choice Theory: Assumes actors make decisions by evaluating all possible options to maximize benefits. Sociological (Norm-Based) Explanations ​ Focus on how social norms, identities, and shared values shape state behavior.  ○​ Example: The end of apartheid in South Africa was influenced by global norms of human rights and non-violence. ○​ Example: The rise of international environmental agreements reflects growing norms about climate change. The Logic of Consequences vs. the Logic of Appropriateness ​ Logic of Consequences: States act based on a cost-benefit analysis to maximize interests. ○​ Example: Germany’s decision to enter the EU was driven by economic interests (trade benefits). ​ Logic of Appropriateness: States act based on norms or expected behavior in a given context. ○​ Example: Post-WWII Germany’s commitment to European integration was driven by the desire to reintegrate into European norms. Psychological Theories and Rational-Choice Limitations ​ Bounded Rationality: Decision-makers do not always make perfectly rational choices due to cognitive biases and incomplete information. ○​ Example: The Vietnam War, where misperceptions and emotional reactions influenced US policy despite rational calculations. ​ Prospect Theory: States weigh potential losses more heavily than equivalent gains, impacting decision-making. The Norm’s Life Cycle and the Boomerang Model ​ Norm Life Cycle: Norms evolve in three stages: emergence, cascade, and internalization. ○​ Example: The norm against chemical weapons emerged in the 20th century and has been internalized globally. ​ Boomerang Model: Non-state actors can influence domestic politics through international advocacy, creating global pressure on governments. ○​ Example: Environmental NGOs advocating for stricter environmental protections and influencing global treaties. 12. Human Rights in International Relations The Evolution of Human Rights ​ After WWII, human rights became a central aspect of international politics, particularly with the formation of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). ○​ Example: The International Criminal Court (ICC) prosecutes war crimes and crimes against humanity. ​ Debates in Human Rights: ○​ Universalism: Human rights should apply universally, regardless of cultural context. ○​ Cultural Relativism: Human rights should be interpreted within the framework of specific cultures or societies. Challenges to Human Rights ​ State Sovereignty vs. Human Rights: States often resist international human rights interventions, arguing it infringes on their sovereignty. ○​ Example: China’s response to human rights critiques on issues like Tibet and Xinjiang. ​ Humanitarian Interventions: The UN Security Council authorized interventions to prevent genocide in Rwanda (1994) and Bosnia (1992-1995), but there are ongoing debates about their effectiveness and ethicality. 13. From Ideological to Civilizational Conflicts in World Politics Ideological Conflicts ​ Cold War (1947-1991): The ideological conflict between capitalism (US) and communism (USSR). ○​ Example: The Korean War (1950-1953), where the US and the USSR backed opposing ideologies in a proxy conflict. ​ Post-Cold War: Ideology-based conflicts give way to cultural and civilization-based clashes. Civilizational Conflicts ​ Samuel Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations: Post-Cold War, conflicts are increasingly based on cultural and civilizational identities rather than ideological differences.  ○​ Example: The Islamic State (ISIS) represents a clash between Islamic extremism and Western secularism. 14. Bargaining and Cooperation Absolute vs. Relative Gains ​ Absolute Gains: States aim to increase their total welfare, leading to mutually beneficial cooperation. ○​ Example: Trade agreements like NAFTA, which benefits all member states economically. ​ Relative Gains: States prioritize gaining more than others, even if absolute gains are lower. ○​ Example: The US-China trade war over tariffs reflects concern with relative gains. Game Theory in International Relations ​ Coordination Games: States must align on strategies, e.g., international standards like aviation safety. ○​ Collaboration Games: Cooperation benefits all parties, e.g., climate change agreements. Game Theory Key Terms: ​ Nash Equilibrium: States’ strategies are optimal given other states' strategies. ○​ Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), where both superpowers avoided war due to mutual deterrence. ​ Pareto-Optimality: A situation where no party can improve without harming another. ○​ Example: A trade deal that benefits all parties without reducing anyone’s welfare.