Physiology I PDF - Practical Physiology

 prof. AIJA ILGAŽA asst.prof. SINTIJA JONOVA PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY LBTU Faculty of Veterinary Medicine 2nd year student Helena Maria Michaels.....................................................................................

 prof. AIJA ILGAŽA asst.prof. SINTIJA JONOVA PRACTICAL PHYSIOLOGY LBTU Faculty of Veterinary Medicine 2nd year student Helena Maria Michaels.................................................................................. Laboratory works in the study course “Physiology” 2023./2024. academic year  Protocol P1 SAFETY RULES IN LABORATORY WORK ROOM AND STATIONARY 1) Basic regulations during the laboratory works: 1. Laboratory coats are obligatory. They must be clean. 2. Use shoe covers or rubber boots in animal stationary. 3. Hands must be washed during breaks or at the end of the experiment, after stationary or in other cases when necessary. Soap, warm water and disinfectants are available in the laboratory. 4. Eating, drinking is prohibited in the laboratory room. 5. Listen to and follow instructions during laboratory works. If you are not sure, ask! 6. Do not touch any equipment unless you have been instructed on its use. 7. It is forbidden to touch electric equipment or sockets with a wet hand. 8. Equipment should be only used as described in the lab notes or explained by the supervisor. 9. Accidents which occur in spite of all the preventive measures should be reported immediately to the supervisor or assistant. 10. In some laboratory works’ poisonous and caustic chemicals are used. They should not get into the mouth, eyes, or come into contact with the skin. 11. If a caustic and/or poisonous substance gets on the skin, mucous membranes or eyes, it must be rinsed with clean running water (from the tap). To wash the eyes, use a special disposable rinse bottle, which is located near the sink. 12. In case of a fire in the building, fire alarm will go on. The building should be evacuated through the nearest staircase. 13. When the alarm sound goes on, even if the cause is not obvious, run down the nearest stairwell. Do not use the elevator! 2) Regulations in laboratory works with human involvement 1. Human experiments and observation can only be carried out on volunteers after obtaining their informed consent. Subjects should be aware of the circumstances and possible outcomes of the experiment. 2. Experiments that might lead to permanent physical or psychological harm of the subjects are prohibited. 3. Safety precautions should be entirely followed during the experiments. 4. Do not handle anyone’s body fluids except your own unless you are wearing gloves. 5. Investigation results, photos and other sensitive information obtained about other people should not be distributed. 3) Regulations in laboratory works with animal involvement 1. Avoid causing pain to the subject of the experiment, or to minimize it, if it cannot be avoided completely. During the examination and determination of physiological indicators, pay attention to the correct fixation of animals. 2. Approach the animals confidently, but always keep in mind that animals can bite, kick, push, step on your leg, etc. If you feel threatened, always move away from the animal at a safe distance! 3. Investigation results, photographs and other sensitive information about animals must not be distributed. 2  Protocol P2 BRIEF FACTS FROM THE HISTORY OF PHYSIOLOGY Physiology is an ancient science. It is accepted to consider the year 1628 as its beginning, when the book “On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals” by the prominent English doctor, anatomist and physiologist William Harvey was published. In the 17th century, using the new ideas about blood circulation, almost simultaneously the English surgeon Richard Lower, in year 1665 and the French doctor Jean-Baptiste Denis in year 1667 performed a blood transfusion from an animal to human. In the 17th century, research on muscle contractions also began. The English researcher Francis Glisson made a great contribution in this field. He created the concept of excitable tissue. In the 18th century, Russian scientist Mikhail Lomonosov (1711 – 1765) played a major role in the development of physiology. He discovered the law of impermanence of substances. He created ideas about the mechanism of color vision. In the 18th century, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743 – 1794) created scientific foundations for the modern concept of breathing. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur contributed greatly to the development of digestive physiology. He obtained gastric juice from the birds’ stomach with a sponge (he either let the bird swallow it or pushed it into the stomach and then pulled it out). The Italian scientist Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729 – 1799) also conducted experiments on himself. He swallowed fabric bags with meat, bread, grain, and when the bags “came out”, he analyzed their contents. In the 18th century, Italian physicist Luigi Galvani discovered bioelectric phenomena in tissues. He laid the foundations for electrophysiology. In the second half of the 19th century, physiology was completely separated from anatomy. Claude Bernard (1813 – 1878) gained world fame by studying the physiological mechanisms of digestive juices. He demonstrated that glycogen is formed in the liver and that the exchange of carbohydrates in the body is regulated by centers located in the medulla oblongata. C.Bernard was the first to create the concept of homeostasis. Academician Ivan Sechenov (1825 – 1905) was the founder of the Russian School of Physiology. He conducted the research on the physiology of the CNS. His book “Brain Reflexes” was the basis of Pavlov’s research in the physiology of higher nervous activity. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century was the time of active work of the Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849 – 1936). Academician Pavlov for his work in digestive physiology, in which the so-called chronic experiment was used, in year 1904 he received the highest recognition – the Nobel Prize. The greatest achievement of his scientific activity was the study of higher nervous activity. In Latvia, systematic physiology research began in 1920, when the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Latvia founded the Institute of Physiology. The first Latvian Physiologist prof. Roberts Krimbergs (1874 – 1941) organized physiology research in Latvia. He had graduated from the Moscow Medical University, so at the beginning he introduced the traditions of the Russian School of Physiology in Latvia. For many years, Latvian physiologists were led by Krimberg’s student doc. Alvīne Pāvule (1958 – 1975). In 1972, under the leadership of Pāvule, the first physiology textbook was published in Latvian. Prof. Jevgeņijs Linārs (1920 – 2003) and prof. Juris Leja (1938 – 2021) had worked in the field of digestive physiology for more than 30 years. Linārs developed a fundamentally new method of examining the state of the stomach – the intragastric pH-metry, which is used in studies of the gastrointestinal tract. Neurophysiology research is associated with the name of prof. Arnolds Krauklis (1920 – 2003). He developed the concept of self-regulation of human higher neural activity. The prof. Arnolds Valtneris (1929 – 2003) and prof. Pāvils Ozoliņš (1895 – 1988) had great merits in the physiology of heart and blood circulation. 3  Protocol P3 Physiology and its main tasks Physiology is a fundamental science of biology that studies all the life processes in the organism, the functions of cells, tissues, organs, principles and mechanisms of their regulation. 1) Explain the terms and phrases used in the definition: the growth wurvived reproduction aging it functioning of Life processes in the body:......................................................................................................... the , organism n e a rs , ,.................................................................................................................................................... external and internal earnamental raclitions activity Functions of cells, tissues, organs:constant............................................................................................... to maintain life changing specific is processes exe.................................................................................................................................................... the reclination of all functives sequence of proces for Regulation.................................................................................................................................. is a 2) Give examples that describe the main tasks of physiology! The main tasks of physiology are: Study and understand the life processes: digative system meeting tr) sorset prese sentral blood periitelis in Autonomic – e.g.,...................................................................................................................... , tha provence we ,.................................................................................................................................................... baby contral movements releted mumbles eye slinking Somatic – e.g.,........................................................................................................................... we , see than proces ,.................................................................................................................................................... for specific simpli tauh temperature light bein belo nouement Sensory – e.g.,............................................................................................................................ , sell to expres detectio mustatisms , right genetically programmed , , , n e ws , , unity Cheering reing feeling.................................................................................................................................................... , , satisfaction ( and pyliziology / emotions , anger , per , Psychic – e.g., ageitivity brain............................................................................................................................ Search for ways to use environmental factors to increase the body’s functional reserves and increase animal productivity. Example: snd amount Distribution of rainfall roler ratiation and photoperial, utrition temperature humility................................................................................................................................................................ , , ,................................................................................................................................................................ 4  Protocol P4 Research methods in physiology 1. Introduction. When starting any research/experiment: ✓ Define the aim and objectives ✓ Develop the plan and methodology in detail ✓ Coordinate the research in accordance with regulations on animal research ✓ Conduct the research ✓ Record the results ✓ Summarize, analyze and evaluate the results ✓ Draw the conclusions Research in physiology can be divided into two large groups: 1. Observation – do not interfere with the body, only observe. For example, Nature documentaries................................................................................................................................................... 2. Experiment i. Acute – while the animal is under full anesthesia, manipulations, obtaining information, and research are carried out. After which the animal is euthanized without waking up. For example, Salartary experiments with brug losage etualto driele................................................................................................................................................... , ii. Chronic – while the animal is under full anesthesia, manipulations are performed, artificial access to the organ to be studied is created, the animal is clinically cured and observed for a long time. For example, experiments nutritional experiments beherarel................................................................................................................................................... Estela , S 2. Tasks: 1. During the lesson, discuss and write examples about the observation method, about the acute and about the chronic experiment! 2. Compare the positive and negative aspects of these research methods! 3. Find one example of the application of one of the research methods in the scientific literature. Analyze whether the applied method corresponded to the tasks set by the research and whether it provided a result. Research method Positive Negative animal poier not soring the not extually very goal information-wise Observation good on the welfere wife Obtaining many information animal dir after the experiment Acute experiment free chaise in experiments turns of animal welfare Cat in low sort (felites toff feed animal alive offer experiment continued li n e experive , - long experiment for a Chronic experiment animal studied untur natural rambitions and organs with living argonium reverses warr 3. Conclusions. not ethical be the since point of view n it is better rture to been , h ming fint fies into of each periments very experiments ou r and. Some the of methods obieration re c e type , There are may of 5  Protocol P5 Passive transport of substances through the biological membrane (diffusion, osmosis, filtration) 1. Introduction. Passive transport occurs when substances move through the biological membrane (BM) without spending the cell's energy, but using other forms of energy. In the case of electroneutral molecules, the process is driven by the concentration gradient, but in the case of ions, also by the electrical gradient (potential). This is how osmosis, diffusion, filtration and passive conduction along electrical gradient occur. Diffusion provided by the difference in the concentration gradient of substances on both sides of the BM. This means that in order to equalize the concentration of substances on both sides of the BM, the substance crosses the BM in the direction from the higher concentration of the respective substance to the lower one. It lasts as long as there is a difference in the concentration of substances on both sides of the BM. o Passive diffusion – molecules with good solubility in lipids diffuse. Happening: Slower. In this way diffuses O2, CO2, various medicines. This process is influenced by substance concentration, temperature, molecular size and distance from the BM. o Facilitated diffusion – molecules with poor solubility in lipids move through special BM channels with the help of specific carrier proteins. It happens faster than passive diffusion. This process is influenced by: concentration of substances; temperature; existence of carrier proteins. Osmosis is provided by differences in osmotic pressure (concentration of dissolved salts) gradient on both sides of the BM. This means that in order to equalize the concentration of dissolved salts on both sides of the BM, a solvent (usually H2O) passes through the BM from the side with the lowest to the highest salt concentration. Occurs as long as there is a difference in osmotic pressure between the IC and EC environment. Filtration is provided by the difference in hydrostatic pressure (fluid pressure on the membrane) gradient on both sides of the BM. 2. Tasks: 1. Compare the passive transport methods of substances by filling in the table! 2. Investigate how diffusion, osmosis and filtration take place with the help of experiments. Study and compare the function and resistance of the biological membrane of a living cell (erythrocyte) in solutions with different osmolarity. 3. Results. 1. Comparison of the passive transport methods Comparative factors Types of passive What is the What are the What is the transport What moves? driving force of influencing speed? this movement? factors? 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During ' this period, the following muscle contraction events occur: a) Depolarization b) Ca+2 diffusion A c) Establishing of actin/myosin binding II contraction period – the time from the onset of the contraction to the peak of tension III relaxation period – from the maximum tension until the moment when the tension returns to the initial level. Most often, needle electrodes and electric current of varying strength are used to induce artificial contractions of isolated muscles. The device used to examine muscle contractions is called a myograph, and the obtained recording is called a myogram. Reading the myogram allows a detailed analysis of all three periods of muscle contraction, the length and fluctuations of which depend on: A) Stimulus strength and B) Frequency Types of skeletal muscle contractions. A) Muscle (skeletal) contractions depend on the strength of stimulus. Skeletal muscles follow the law of stimulus strength – the stronger the stimulus, the stronger is the response (up to certain limits). Why??? 1. Skeletal muscle fibers do not have the same excitability. First, the most sensitive muscle fibers respond to the threshold stimulus, but as the strength of the stimulus increases, the number of fibers that are excited also increase. Consequently, the muscle contracts more strongly! 2. In striated muscles, unlike cardiac muscle, the excitation does not pass from one fiber to another. It provides amule gradual increase in muscle contraction force. contraction trength of Drawing. # n ot L - awe WIl rhold - tiere B) Skeletal muscle contractions depend on frequency. Depending on the frequency of stimulation and response reactions, 4 types of contractions are distinguished: 1. A single muscle contraction can be obtained if the next threshold stimulus is given after the muscle has completely relaxed. In this mode of action, the muscles practically do not get tired, because many activated muscle fibers do not contract at the same time. Contractions of individual muscles ensure weak and moderate long-term maintenance of muscle tension. witch Drawing. ~ + I Actio ontreation relation ↓ ~ extentM 9  2. Isometric contractions are contractions where the muscle contracts and creates tension, but the length of the muscle does not shorten, because the force produced by the muscle is equal to the load on the muscle. An example can be found when the muscles of the hand and forearm grip an object; the joints of the hand do not move, but the muscles generate enough force to prevent the object from falling. abgest not ment retain a moving ·. Drawing. Lifting against an well , holding had up. Person starting Plauk but sensat navy energy , Munder use =>. energy raturework statis aroun fater. Fatigue 3. In isotonic contraction, muscle tension remains constant despite changes in muscle length. Isotonic contractions encourage movement or change in body position. Example = flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, etc. muletene running Sting Drawing. , · Dynamis soucemption low Energy - 4. Muscle tetanic contraction or tetanus is a prolonged muscle contraction caused by the motor nerve innervating skeletal muscle firing action potentials at a very high rate. In this state, a motor unit is maximally stimulated by its motor neuron and remains so for some time. This happens when the muscle motor unit is stimulated by several impulses at a sufficiently high frequency. Every stimulus causes a twitch. If the stimuli are delivered slowly enough, muscle tension relaxes between successive twitches. When stimuli are delivered at a high frequency, the twitches overlap, leading to a tetanic contraction. During tetanus, the muscle contraction tension remains constant in a steady state. This is the maximal possible contraction. During tetanic contractions, muscles can shorten, lengthen, or remain the same length. These contractions negatively affect blood circulation in the muscles and oxygen supply to the tissues. An energy deficit quickly occurs in the cells. Depending on the frequency of stimuli, there are 2 types of tetanus: a) Incomplete (rough) tetanus. At low frequency, the muscle fiber relaxes before the next stimulus occurs. As the frequency of stimuli increases and the time between the stimuli decreases, the muscle fiber cannot fully relax before the next stimulus occurs. This loss of relaxation between stimuli is called tetanus. We say a muscle has incomplete tetanus if the muscle fiber is able to partially relax between stimuli. b) Complete (smooth) tetanus. A muscle fiber is in a state of complete tetanus when there is no relaxation at all between stimuli. muriles Eye Drawing. inompete ampellets - e twitking Specs. 11ME as concent a lat. Fatigue in quite fort. - 2. Tasks: and fee 1. Draw the myorograms of the types of muscle contractions described in the introductory part! 2. Describe examples of isometric, isotonic and tetanic muscle contraction and the intensity of energy consumption and the possible time of onset of fatigue. 10 3. Results. number last of the Isometric muscle contraction - to the centrants arctes terriam length of the mule bas not lates , pare erited by the mule in equel muscle , & - > - much and not Tod ins - e -insuli Isotonic muscle contraction - unde horten muscle tenian remain untent despitedanger in mue legte w -timli interseting Tetanic muscle contraction - prolonged mumble contraction scred by incompleteo s the nator anoth n eve betes potentials It be Related mul actiae at high rets sr firing L. a very 4. Conclusions. bath of the me best later therefore for a at Attthat th to tittruttinConti in whe protocolwesternethypof matte In thir the mudle is 11  Protocol E2 Skeletal muscle strength and work 1. Introduction. Skeletal muscle strength is characterized by the maximum weight the muscle can lift. ! Skeletal muscle strength depends on: 1. physiological cross-sectional area of the muscle. 2. how well the muscle is “trained”. 3. blood supply. 4. the degree of muscle fatigue. 5. influence of the sympathetic nervous system. Law of the average load: increasing the weight of the load above an average load, the work done by the muscles decreases. Work is done when a force acts on a body. If a force of one Newton moves a body by one meter, then one joule of work is done. If a force of 100 N is required to move a stack of books across a 2 m wide square table, then the work done is 100*2=200 J (A=F·s), kur F – force, N and s – displacement, m). In this example, work is done to overcome the frictional force between the books and the table surface. Muscles perform two types of work: dynamic (perform movement) and static (maintain posture). Dynamic work. The dynamics consists alternating tension and relaxation of the muscles. When the muscle is relaxed, the blood vessels dilate and blood can flow into it. When it is tense, the blood vessels are squeezed together and the blood does not reach the muscle. Muscles receive oxygen and nutrients through the blood, which also removes waste products. Running is a good example of dynamic muscle work. Blood flow to the muscles is increased to meet metabolic needs. Increased blood flow is achieved by increasing heart rate (cardiac output), reducing blood flow to inactive areas, such as kidneys and liver, and increasing the number of open blood vessels in the working muscles. Static work. From the point of view of physiology, we talk about muscle work even when there is no movement, but the muscles only keep the body in a certain position, acting against the forces that force the position to change, for example, the force of the earth’s gravity. In static work, muscle contraction does not produce visible movement, as, for example, in a limb. Static work increases the pressure inside the muscle, which, together with mechanical compression, partially or completely blocks blood circulation. The supply of nutrients and oxygen to the muscle and the elimination of metabolic end products from the muscle is disturbed. Thus, muscles become fatigued more easily in static work than in dynamic work. Static work can be calculated by using this formula: As=N·t, where N is the force developed by the muscle; t is the time during which the force acts. The dynamic work at this point is close to or equal to zero. When the body makes movements, especially when moving a load, the musculature in general performs both static and dynamic work, because certain parts of the body must be kept in a certain motionless position by tensing the respective muscles, while other muscle groups tense and relax, ensuring movement. In this case, the total muscle work is calculated by summing the static and dynamic work. 12  2. Tasks: 1. Assess the factors that influence skeletal muscle strength. 2. Think of an example of static, dynamic, as well as simultaneous static and dynamic work performed by animals. Analyze whether the work can be made easier in the mentioned examples. 3. Results. 1) Factors affecting skeletal muscle strength. Describe the type of influence, how, why! 1. Draw and compare the anatomical and physiological cross-sectional area1 of fusiform and pennate muscles of the same size. A (Picture) interes blood mapply in bigger trained the strength muscles ore , 2. Muscle training. … the more bet argy Rol of - work w not rangen bed -el s Ti s respite flast bloat upply - in upplied , requires may I was well emount of blac spensio b at ret , ser 3. Blood supply. … blood supply Auraes musle righ becaus too If a fete Agreemu a of 4. The degree of muscle fatigue. … the higher mude strength increase gl 5. Fear and stress (influence of the sympathetic nervous system). … when symplael - -o versus -en melbolis floo upflog prosenes - & muste exriteblity Rebel , & 2) Example of dynamic, static or static-dynamic work. Describe, analyze, how can it be made easier? to met metabolis dress engaged blood flow egger supply (mules alternately tene A we living tride Contreranber systems in to insee , Dynamis of fortwee to since impet. musing higtration mutrition tosupport needs proper stept edepate - un to allow muscles to saire c rags , including gritmal , training techniques programs. it farming an proper Moring raiser : , contraste to maintain apecific parture egeint the face of gravity musles are Satis : halling a plant a to tribute a Whit reve tot : investimport refor tutiongradually wh ter , motion codynamics citatio while other perform the lifting Statis-bynanis : weightlifting name murdles tobilize the baby a weight begin withlighte gradually pe figy, fanminimize ri it Using foon proper raier : , 4. Conclusions. training different example of atio Dynamics statio dynemt workloa factors affect well an facent that mumble In out the Different. a , In this proteral we 1 In muscle physiology, physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) is the area of the cross section of a muscle perpendicular to its fibers, generally at its largest point. It is typically used to describe the contraction properties of pennate muscles. It is not the same as the anatomical cross-sectional area (ACSA), which is the area of the crossection of a muscle perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. In a non-pennate muscle the fibers are parallel to the longitudinal axis, and therefore PCSA and ACSA coincide. 13  Protocol E3 Test of hand muscle tension dosing capabilities 1. Introduction. When muscles are working, it is important to be able to apply just as much force as it is necessary for the performance of the specific task. Applying too much force will cause faster onset of fatigue both in the nervous system and in the muscles themselves. On the other hand, the use of insufficient force will not ensure the full performance of the task. Therefore, it is important to understand whether we can consciously control the strength of the applied force. 2. Equipment: hand dynamometer, stopwatch 3. Technique. The examinee compresses the dynamometer spring to a freely chosen degree (not maximum!). Read the result. Then, without visual control, compress the dynamometer spring again, trying to tighten the muscles to the same degree as in the first case. Read the result. Six measurements are taken with each hand. Each time an attempt is made to repeat this muscle tension as accurately as possible. The results are summarized in a table below. Calculate the error of repeated arm tension (kg). 4. Results. Write the obtained results in the table. AVERAGE 13 Person Muscle tension (kg) Deflection being Hand Repeated (+/-) 1X min max evaluated 2X 3X 4X 5X 6X 7X Right + - 75 9 2013 "S 13 15 - S 15 4/2 Helena Left t - 8