Philosophy Study Guide PDF

## Types of Education - **Vocational Training:** Goal is to be a good worker. - **Citizenship Formation:** Goal is to be a good citizen. - **Liberal Education:** Goal is to be a good human being. ## Liberal Arts Education - Liberal arts prepare you to receive a liberal education. - **Seven tradit...

## Types of Education - **Vocational Training:** Goal is to be a good worker. - **Citizenship Formation:** Goal is to be a good citizen. - **Liberal Education:** Goal is to be a good human being. ## Liberal Arts Education - Liberal arts prepare you to receive a liberal education. - **Seven traditional liberal arts:** - **Trivium:** - Grammar - Logic - Rhetoric - **Quadrivium:** - Arithmetic - Astronomy - Geometry - Music ## Understanding Liberal Education - **Traditional:** To perfect the intellect and learn to control will and emotions. - **Modern:** To use intellect to achieve goals of human appetite. - This document focuses on the **traditional** view. ## Philosophy and Wisdom - **Philosophy:** Love of wisdom. - **Wisdom:** Knowledge of reality in terms of ultimate causes. ## Four Types of Cause - **Material Cause:** The matter a thing is made of (e.g., the wood of a chair). - **Formal Cause:** The form or shape of a thing (e.g., the shape of a chair). - **Efficient Cause:** The agent that makes a thing (e.g., the carpenter who made the chair). - **Final Cause:** The end goal or purpose of a thing (e.g., the chair's purpose to be sat on). ## More Ultimate Causes - In each type of cause, some causes are more ultimate than others. - This means they have higher purpose. - **Examples of more ultimate causes among the four types:** - **Material:** Changing metal into gold is more ultimate than changing it into a plow. - **Formal:** A dog as dog is more ultimate than being a certain breed of dog. - **Efficient:** The carpenter is more ultimate than the tool used. - **Final:** Building a house to provide shelter is more ultimate than building a house to make a profit. ## The Ultimate Efficient Cause - The most basic and ultimate efficient cause is that which upholds *matter-form composites* in being. ## Philosophy vs. Sciences - Philosophy seeks causes that are more ultimate than those sought by physical and social sciences. ## Parts of Philosophy - **Historical Parts of Philosophy:** - Ancient - Medieval - Modern - Recent - **Systematic Parts of Philosophy:** - Logic - Philosophy of nature - Metaphysics - Ethics ## Induction and Deduction - **Induction:** Discovering primary premises by recognizing self-evident truths about reality. It's moving from smaller to bigger concepts. - **Deduction:** Deducing conclusions from primary premises. It's moving from bigger to smaller concepts. ## Primary Premises - Primary premises are self-evident truths about reality. - We can understand them by using *induction*. - **Example:** A dog is an animal; an animal is a living being; a living being is a being. ## Limits of Scientific Knowledge - We cannot have scientific knowledge of primary premises because they are self-evident truths. - Our knowledge of them is based on intuition. ## Intuition - Intuition is a cognitive act that allows us to grasp primary premises directly. ## Difference between Science and Art - **Science:** Theoretical intellectual knowledge - **Art:** Practical intellectual knowledge ## Induction and Deductive Arguments - Induction explains the premises of a deductive argument. - **Example:** A deductive argument about the nature of a human could start with the premises "A human is rational," "A human is a biped", which are discovered by induction. ## Defining a Human - **Most essential definition of a human**: A rational animal. ## Aristotle's Induction - **Steps of Aristotelian Induction:** - *Sensation:* Sensory experiences. - *Memory:* Storing experiences - *Experience:* Grouping memories. - *Intellectual Intuition:* Grasping primary premises directly. ## Categories of Accidents - Aristotle identifies **nine** categories of accidents: - Quantity - Quality - Acting - Being acted on - Position - Relation - Place - Time - Condition/State ## The Category of Substance - The word *essence* is primarily applied to the category of *substance*. ## Syllogism - A syllogism is a deductive argument with two premises and one conclusion. - **Types of Syllogism:** - **Perfect Syllogism:** Two premises and one conclusion. - **Imperfect Syllogism:** Missing a premise or conclusion. ## Premises - **Premise:** A statement we know to be true via induction. - **Types of Premises:** - **Demonstrative premise:** A self-evident truth. - **Dialectical premise:** A generally accepted truth. - **Contentious premise:** Something a lot of people think is true, but can't be proven. ## Terms of a Premise - **Subject Term:** The term that refers to the thing you are talking about. - **Predicate Term:** The term that describes the subject term. ## Types of Premises - **Universal:** All/No S is P (e.g., All dogs are mammals). - **Particular:** Some S is (not) P (e.g., Some dogs are black). - **Indefinite:** S is P (e.g., Dogs are loyal). ## Ways to Divide Premises - **Assertoric:** Predicate term is asserted with the verb "is" (e.g., The sky is blue). - **Possible:** Predicate term is asserted with the verb "may be" (e.g., The cat may be green). - **Necessary:** Predicate term is asserted with the verb "must be" (e.g., The dog must be a mammal). - **Affirmative:** Predicate term affirms something about the subject term (e.g., All cats are mammals). - **Negative:** Predicate term negates something about the subject term (e.g., No cats are dogs). ## The Role of the Middle Term - *Middle Term:* Links the major and minor terms in a syllogism. - It is the most essential part of the syllogism. - *Major Term:* The most universal term in a syllogism. - *Minor Term:* The least universal term in a syllogism. ## Sound vs. Valid Arguments - **Structurally Sound Argument:** The premises may be false, but the conclusion follows from the premises. - **Valid Argument:** The truth of the conclusion follows from the truth of the premises. ## Converting Statements - Some statements can be converted, meaning the subject and predicate terms swap places. - **Examples:** - **All dogs are animals:** Can be converted to **Some animals are dogs**. - **No rocks are living beings:** Can be converted to **No living beings are rocks**. - **Some humans are women:** Cannot be converted. - **Some humans are not women:** Cannot be converted. ## Incorrect Syllogism - There are various ways a syllogism can be incorrect. ## Heraclitus - **Claim:** Change is the fundamental nature of reality. - **Argument:** Even though constant change creates many different things, there is an underlying harmony that unifies reality. - **Fire is a symbol for change:** Fire symbolizes constant change and the inherent instability of reality. - **Reason vs. Senses:** Heraclitus distinguishes senses from reason: - *Senses:* Focus on the changing variety of things. - *Reason:* Perceives the unity underlying change. - **Morality:** Heraclitus suggests we should live in accord with the nature of reality by constructing a hidden unity in our moral lives. - **Inductive Reasoning:** Heraclitus' arguments are inductive. He uses his experiences to discover the underlying nature of reality. - **Highest Virtue:** Self-control. ## Parmenides - **Claim:** Being is the fundamental nature of reality. - **Being:** Refers to the essence of things, which is an identifiable material element. - **Not-Being:** Is the opposite of being. - **Principle of Being:** Being is, and it is impossible for being to not be. - **Change and Time:** If being is the nature of reality, then change and time are impossible. - **Limits of the Universe:** Parmenides sees the universe as finite and spherical. - **Nature of Reality:** Parmenides argues that we can't directly understand the nature of reality because all things are, simply because they *are*. ## Socrates - **Inductive Reasoning:** Socrates was known for using inductive reasoning. - **Focus:** Moral behavior and excellence of character. - **Universals:** Socrates believed the truth of universal definitions existed. Plato later disputed this view. - **Values:** Socrates ranked virtue higher than wealth, honor, reputation, knowledge, and virtue. - **Obeying God:** Obeying God for Socrates meant following his own moral conscience. - **Avoiding Death:** Socrates believed the fear of death is more a pretense of wisdom than true knowledge. - **Moral Courage:** Socrates argued that moral courage is not the same as rashness, cowardice, or fearlessness. Courage is about confronting fear with knowledge and wisdom. - **Socrates' Argument in the Crito:** Socrates argued that he should not escape prison because doing so would undermine the law and cause chaos in the state. - **Doing Evil vs. Suffering Evil:** Socrates believed that doing evil is worse than suffering evil. ## Plato - **The Divided Line:** Plato divided reality into four parts: - *Copies:* Sensable objects (e.g., a particular tree) - *Bodies:* Mathematical objects (e.g., the concept of triangles) - *Forms:* The ideal or perfect forms of things (e.g., the Form of Beauty) - *The Good:* The ultimate source of reality and knowledge. - **The Intellect:** Plato believed the intellect can process knowledge in two ways: - *Deduction:* Reasoning from general to specific. - *Induction:* Reasoning form specific to general. - **Nature of Reality:** Plato determined there are three types of reality: - *Forms:* Unchanging perfect originals. - *Reason:* The power of rationality. - *Bodies:* Changing, physical objects. - **Knowledge vs. Opinion:** Knowledge corresponds to unchanging being. Opinion corresponds to changing being. - **Space:** Plato believed space is real but not fully real. It is a home for physical things but not as real as the Forms. - **Beauty:** Plato believed there is a hierarchy of beauty: - *Beauty of a single individual*. - *Beauty common to many materials*. - *Beauty of mind*. - *Beauty of institutions and laws*. - *Beauty of sciences*. - *The Form of Beauty:* The ultimate source of beauty. - **Beauty and the Good:** Plato believed the Form of the Good is analogous to the material sun and governs the world of Forms. - **The Soul:** Plato believed the soul has three parts: - *Rational Soul:* Reason and intellect. - *Spirited Soul:* Emotions and willpower. - *Appetitive Soul:* Desires and instincts. ## Plato's Arguments for the Immortality of the Soul - **First Argument:** Things with opposites come from their opposites. - Since the soul is alive, it must come from death. - Either death results in separation of soul and body, or non-existence. - The soul must have pre-existed the body for learning to be recollection . - **Second Argument:** Learning is remembering what we already know from our time in the world of Forms. - **Third Argument:** - Unchangeable things cannot be dispersed. - Forms are unchangeable. - The soul is unchangeable since it governs the body. - Souls must pre-exist the body. ## Plato's Ideas on the Soul - **Soul and Body:** Plato believed the soul is distinct from the body and uses it. The soul is divine and unchanging while the body is governed by it and subject to change. - **Philosophy and Death:** Philosophy can help us prepare for death since it prepares us to turn away from the body and focus on the soul. - **Souls that Become Ghosts:** Ghosts are souls that attach themselves to bodies. - **The Soul's Nature:** The soul is a substantial form of a living being that is connected to the body and has its own powers. ## Plato's View of the State - **Justice:** Each part of the soul or state should focus on its own proper function. - **Virtues:** - *Wisdom:* Found in the Guardians. - *Courage:* Found in the soldiers. - *Temperance:* Found in rulers and subjects. - *Justice:* The most important virtue, and is brought about by all the others working together. ## Aristotle - **Being:** Aristotle identified several meanings of *being*. The most fundamental sense of being is *substance*. - **Substance:** Aristotle believed that substances are not only material beings but also immaterial things, such as the Forms. - **The Material Universe:** Aristotle argued that the material universe is in constant change and motion, and that everything in the universe is a combination of potency and act. - **The Prime Mover:** Aristotle believed that the ultimate cause of the universe is a pure actuality, which is the prime mover. The prime mover is not part of the universe but the source of its motion. - **Function of Man:** Aristotle believed that the function of man is to live a virtuous life. - **Happiness:** Aristotle believed that **happiness** is achieved by living a virtuous life in accordance with one's function. - **The Three Lives:** Aristotle identified three types of life: - *The life of enjoyment:* Seeking pleasure as the highest good. - *The political life:* Seeking honor as the highest good. - *The contemplative life:* Seeking knowledge as the highest good. - **Virtues:** Aristotle believed that virtues are habits that make us more inclined to do good things. - *Intellectual Virtues:* Virtues related to the intellect, such as wisdom and knowledge. - *Moral Virtues:* Virtues related to character, such as courage, temperance, and justice. ## Aristotle on the Soul - **The Soul:** Aristotle believed that the soul is the substantial form of a living being. It gives the body *life* and *organization*. - **Powers of The Soul:** The soul has four powers: - *Nutritive:* Powers related to nutrition. - *Appetitive:* Powers related to desire. - *Sensory:* Powers related to perception. - *Locomotive:* Powers related to movement. - **The Intellect:** Aristotle believed that the intellect is immaterial and does not reside in the body. It is a unique power of the soul. ## Aristotle's Argument for the Immateriality of the Intellect - **First Argument:** The mind cannot be affected by material things without changing itself. Therefore, it must not be material. - **Second Argument:** the mind is active, not passive, and knowledge is a form of actuality. Therefore, the mind must be immaterial. - **Third Argument:** The intellect is not an organ, and it is not adversely affected by its objects. Therefore, it is not material. ## Key Points about the Soul - **Mind's Self-Knowledge:** The mind knows itself when it knows anything else. - **Intellect's Two Functions:** - *Actual Intellect:* The active intellect that produces knowledge. - *Possible Intellect:* The passive intellect that receives knowledge. - **Knowledge:** There are two kinds of knowledge: - *Theoretical Knowledge:* Knowing for the sake of knowing. - *Practical Knowledge:* Knowing for the sake of acting. ## Ethics and the Good Life - **Happiness:** Aristotle believed that happiness is the highest good and is the ultimate goal of human life. - **Function Argument:** Human happiness comes from fulfilling our function, which is to live a life in accordance with virtue. - **The Good:** Aristotle distinguished three meanings of *good*: - *Good in itself:* Something desirable for its own sake. - *Useful good:* Something desirable as a means to an end. - *Pleasure:* Something desirable for the experience of enjoyment. - **Virtue:** Aristotle believed that virtue is a habit that makes us inclined to do good things. - **Types of Life:** - *Life of enjoyment:* Seeking only pleasure. - *Political life:* Seeking only honor. - *Contemplative life:* Seeking only knowledge. - **Aristotle's Criticism of Others' Views of Happiness:** - He believed it is a mistake to seek only honor or wealth as the goal of life. - He believed it is a mistake to think that virtuous living is only useful, and not intrinsically desirable. ## The State - **The State:** Aristotle believed that the state is a natural institution and a reflection of the individual's nature. - **Purpose of the State:** Aristotle believed that the state should aim at justice and the good life for all citizens. - **The Role of Justice:** Justice is essential for the well-being of the state. It helps maintain social order, prevents individuals from harming each other, and enables people to live in harmony.