PHILOSOPHY OF LAW MIDTERMS NOTES.docx

**Cases** PCSO VS LAPITAN +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Ruling/Doctrine: | | | | -\[H\]is actions were still natural and normal a...

**Cases** PCSO VS LAPITAN +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Ruling/Doctrine: | | | | -\[H\]is actions were still natural and normal and, besides, was | | certainly beyond suspect as having been purposely staged and | | conceived for the occasion. | | | | -All that need be said in this respect is that the | | plaintiff-appellant was in a state of thrill and excitement and, | | under the spell of his emotions, he could not have acted with a | | certain amount of queerness not dissimilar to an anxious father | | awaiting his first born at the hospital. | | | | -This is not the kind of queerness that supports the principle of res | | gestae which despite its hearsay character, is attributed great | | weight by tribunals of justice. | | | | -A testimony should not be dismissed as self-serving just because it | | comes from an interested party, especially if it is not contradicted | | by other evidence and seems plausible overall. | | | | -A valid claim should not be rejected as self-serving just because it | | comes from an interested party, especially if it is not contradicted | | by other evidence. It should not be dismissed simply to prevent | | potential fraud. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Nilo vs Court of Appeals** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Ruling/Doctrine: | | | | - This principle ensures legal stability and predictability | | protecting established legal relationships and avoiding | | distruptions caused by the change of law. | | | | - The Court also highlights the balance between protecting the | | rights of small landowners and ensuring the welfare of tenants. | | Social justice reflects the philosophical goal of achieving a | | fair and equitable society. this shows the interpretation of laws | | in a way that promoted the dignity and well-being of all parties | | involved. Also, how laws aimed at social reform should be | | construed in balancing the letter of the law with its intended | | purpose to achieve broader social goals. | | | | **doctrine of legal positivism** in the philosophy of law. | | | | - **Legal Positivism**: This doctrine asserts that laws are rules | | created by human authorities and are not necessarily linked to | | morality. | | | | - **Separation Thesis**: It emphasizes the separation of law and | | morality, arguing that the validity of a law is not dependent on | | its moral correctness. | | | | - **Sources Thesis**: This thesis states that the existence and | | content of law are determined by social facts and not by its | | merits. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Social justice as thus defined and in its true meaning is not meant to countenance, much less perpetuate, an injustice against any group - not even as against landholders. For the landholders as a component unit or element in our agro-industrial society are entitled to \`equal justice under law\' which our courts are, above everything else, under mandate of the Constitution to dispense fairly, without fear nor favor. **Republic of the Philippines vs Sandigan bayan et. Al** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | - **-** The exclusionary rule has evolved to prevent the government | | from benefiting from its unlawful actions, ensuring judicial | | integrity and public trust. | | | | - **Legal Positivism vs. Natural Law**: He contrasts his natural | | law perspective with the legal positivist approach, which views | | law as a set of rules enforced by the state. Puno advocates for | | the recognition of natural rights as fundamental and inalienable, | | regardless of the existence of a formal legal framework. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **In the case G.R. No. 104768 (Republic of the Philippines vs. Sandiganbayan, Major General Josephus Q. Ramas, and Elizabeth Dimaano), Justice Reynato Puno emphasized the importance of natural law and natural rights. He highlighted that these principles are fundamental and inherent, serving as the basis for human rights and justice. [Natural law refers to a set of moral principles inherent in human nature, while natural rights are the rights that individuals possess by virtue of their humanity](https://lawphil.net/judjuris/juri2003/jul2003/gr_104768_2003.html)** **Vargas vs Rilloraza** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Justice Perfecto's concurring opinion on law and justice in the case | | of **Vargas vs. Rilloraza**: | | | | - [**Judicial Independence**: Justice Perfecto emphasized that | | judicial qualifications and disqualifications are fundamentally | | constitutional | | matters^1^](https://edgeservices.bing.com/edgesvc/chat?udsframed= | | 1&form=SHORUN&clientscopes=chat,noheader,udsedgeshop,channelstable,nt | | pquery,devtoolsapi,udsinwin11,udsdlpconsent,udsfrontload,cspgrd,&shel | | lsig=8efe76ff35d538e99e8d1230262bc6da17a60822&setlang=en-US&darkschem | | eovr=1&udsps=0&udspp=0#sjevt%7CDiscover.Chat.SydneyClickPageCitation% | | 7Cadpclick%7C0%7C4ff8a95e-be7f-4076-bae3-8c36d7bcce09). | | [He argued that Congress cannot legislate on judicial | | disqualification without jeopardizing judicial | | independence^2^](https://edgeservices.bing.com/edgesvc/chat?udsfr | | amed=1&form=SHORUN&clientscopes=chat,noheader,udsedgeshop,channelstab | | le,ntpquery,devtoolsapi,udsinwin11,udsdlpconsent,udsfrontload,cspgrd, | | &shellsig=8efe76ff35d538e99e8d1230262bc6da17a60822&setlang=en-US&dark | | schemeovr=1&udsps=0&udspp=0#sjevt%7CDiscover.Chat.SydneyClickPageCita | | tion%7Cadpclick%7C1%7C4ff8a95e-be7f-4076-bae3-8c36d7bcce09). | | | | - **Constitutional Provisions**: He highlighted that the | | Constitution provides sufficient provisions regarding judicial | | qualifications and disqualifications, and any legislative attempt | | to alter these provisions is unconstitutional. | | | | - **Impeachment**: Justice Perfecto reiterated that members of the | | Supreme Court can only be removed through impeachment, as | | prescribed by the Constitution, and not through legislative acts. | | | | - **Integrity of the Judiciary**: He stressed the importance of | | maintaining the integrity and independence of the judiciary, | | warning against any legislative actions that could undermine | | these principles. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Peralta vs Director of Prisons** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | the court references Hegel's "Phenomenology of the Spirit" to | | emphasize the importance of preserving the integrity and humanity of | | judicial processes. | | | | The passage of phenomenology of the spirit suggested that ancient | | statutes, hymns, and works of art have lost their original spiritual | | and cultural significance. They are now merely beautiful remnants, | | disconnected from the vibrant life and beliefs that once gave them | | meaning. | | | | In relation to the case of peralta, that the life imprisonment that | | was imposed to Peralta under Act no. 65 is just a remnants during the | | days of the occupation of the Japanese here in the Philippines and | | its significance had become lost when the philippines transitions to | | a commonwealth, thus the petitioner may be allowed or be granted to | | be released | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+.Approaches in Legal Theory \* jurisprudence concerns the theoretical analysis of law at the highest level of abstraction. Ex. Questions about the nature of a right or duty, judicial reasoning, and frequently implied within substantive legal discipline. Legal theory is important because we live in a troubled world, and during the face of difficulties and injustice, legal theory has a decisive role to play in defining and defending the values and ideals that sustain our way of life. Legal theory- is often used to denote theoretical denotes enquires about law such as the extend beyond the boundaries of law as understood by professional lawyers. - They ask awkward questions about the moral and legal responsibility, the justifications of punishment, the concept of harm, the judicial process, etc. Philosophy of law- proceeds from the stand point of the discipline of philosophy. Ex. It attempt to unravel the sort of problems that might vex moral or political philosopher such as concepts of freedom and authority, - Rarely an abstract, impractical pursuit a. Descriptive Legal Theory- explain what the law is, and why, and its consequences. ALL ABOUT FACTS. i. Doctrinal- a theory that elucidated a particular doctrine ex. Freedom of expression might be justified by decisions of the court on the limits of freedom of speech. -- it seeks to answer questions whether a particular case has some underlying theory that correspond to it. ii. Explanatory- it attempts to explain why the law is at it is. iii. Consequential- a legal theory that concern with the consequences that are likely to follow by the people from a certain set of legal rules. b. Normative legal theory- concerned with what the law ought to be. ALL ABOUT VALUES \- tend to be associated with moral or political theories. -it relates to the ideal or non ideal. (ideal) It relates to what legal rules would create the best legal system if it were politically achievable. While non-ideal presuppose ab assortment of constraints on the choice of legal rules, such as the difficulty of enforcing the rules. \- ex. Seek to establish whether a strict liability of manufacturers of motor vehicles ought to be adopted in order to product the consumers. No clear cut distinction Descriptive normative ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -on the basis of prediction, it can be use for the improvements of the normative theory. -it may rely on a descriptive for the better application of a specific rule. Ronald Dworkin's theory of law as integrity, The theory of law should both fit and justify the legal materials must be unite in order to create a hybrid legal philosophy **2.Schools of thought in Philosophy of law** a\. Natural law- it provides a name for the point of intersection between law and morals. To make it simple, its main idea is that what naturally is, ought to be. \- in terms of social contract, natural law was applied in a theories that conceive of political rights and obligations of the individuals. (only with his consent can a person be subject to the political power of another. (john rawls theory) John Finnis- when we attempt to explain what law is, we make assumptions. \- the theorist cannot give a theoretical description and analysis of social facts unless he also participates in the work of evaluation of understanding what is really good for human person and what is really required by practical reasonablesness. -it proposes that when we are discerning what is good, we are using our intelligence differently from when we are determining what exists. Meaning, if we are to understand the nature and impact of the natural law, it yields a different logic. b\. Legal Positivism \- latin positum, meaning law as it is laid down or poised. \- valid Legal Theory- Legal theory, often referred to as jurisprudence, is the study of the fundamental principles and concepts that underlie the law. It explores questions such as: - **What is law?** - **What should law be?** - **How should laws be interpreted and applied?** [Legal theory is essential for understanding how laws are created, interpreted, and enforced, and it influences various legal domains](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurisprudence) a. **Descriptive Legal Theory** - aims to explain the nature of law by identifying and describing its essential properties without making moral or evaluative judgments. - focuses on what law is, rather than what it ought to be. [It seeks to provide an objective account of the legal system, its structures, and its functions](https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-6730-0_52-1). - All about facts i. **Doctrinal** - is a methodology used in the field of law to analyze and interpret legal documents such as statutes, case law, regulations, and treaties. [This approach focuses on understanding and systematizing legal principles and doctrines to provide a coherent explanation of the law](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-007-1655-1) - The primary concern is with the legal doctrine itself---how it has developed, its current state, and its application. [This includes synthesizing various rules, principles, and norms to explain and justify segments of the law](https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-94-007-1655-1) ii. **Explanatory** - Explanatory legal theory focuses on understanding and explaining the nature, structure, and functioning of law. [It aims to provide a coherent and comprehensive account of legal phenomena by identifying the underlying principles and mechanisms that govern legal systems](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1953151) - explanatory legal theory describes how law actually is. [It seeks to explain the existing legal structures and practices without making value judgments](https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1953151) iii. **Consequential** - this is more likely to follow from a certain set of legal rules. - evaluates the morality and legality of actions based on their outcomes or consequences. - This theory judges the rightness or wrongness of actions by their results. [If the consequences of an action are beneficial, the action is considered morally and legally right](https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/consequentialism). [For example, a law is considered good if it leads to positive societal outcomes](https://ethicsunwrapped.utexas.edu/glossary/consequentialism)[^2^](https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-130/rights-in-flux-nonconsequentialism-consequentialism-and-the-judicial-role/). - Consequential legal theory often involves balancing different interests to achieve the best overall outcome. [This can include weighing individual rights against the greater good](https://harvardlawreview.org/print/vol-130/rights-in-flux-nonconsequentialism-consequentialism-and-the-judicial-role/) b. **Normative Legal Theory** - focuses on what the law ought to be, rather than merely describing what it is - all about values, prescribe how law should be - tend to be associated with moral or political theories. - It might be ideal or non-ideal. Ideal in a sense that it relate to what legal rules would create the best legal system if it were politically achievable. While non-ideal, it presuppose an assortment of constraints in the choice of legal rules, such as the difficulty of enforcing the rules. - [examines the values, principles, and reasons that should guide the creation, interpretation, and application of laws](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_norm). - [It involves the normative evaluation of legal substance and procedures, assessing whether they align with moral and ethical standards](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_norm)^.^ - [This theory relies heavily on philosophical analysis to clarify the values and concepts presupposed by legal doctrines](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_norm). - [Normative legal theories can be applied to various legal domains, such as constitutional law, tort law, and criminal law, to evaluate and propose improvements](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_norm) **School of Thought in Philosophy of Law** a. **Natural Law** - John Finnis asserts that, when we attempt to explain what law is, we make assumptions. - When we make judgement of what is good, we are using our intelligence differently from when we are determining what exists. - Natural law is an example of "normative jurisprudence," which evaluates the purposes or norms behind the law. Laws are rules for man to realize his basic natural goods and when shared, become society's common good. - This posits that law is based on moral principles inherent in human nature and can be discovered through reason. - suggests there are inherent laws and moral principles found in nature and human reason, which are universally applicable and independent of enacted laws (positive law). - [These principles are thought to be discoverable through rational analysis and observation of the natural order](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law). - [Natural law has been used to justify various ethical and legal principles, including the idea of universal human rights and the basis for moral conduct](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_law). - The law is law as long as it pursues the precepts of reason: reasonableness, justice, equality, and fairness. **[According to Cicero]**, there are 3 main components of any natural law philosophy: 1. The law is right reason in agreement with nature- it is a universal application, unchanging, and everlasting 2. It is a sin to try to alter this law, it is allowable to attempt to repeal any part of it. 3. It is impossible to abolish it entirely, god is the author if this law, its promulgator, and its enforcing judge - Classical natural law doctrine- employed to justify both revolution and reaction. Human laws as owing their importance to the power of fate that controlled everything. - **[Aristotle-]** devoted less attention to the natural law rather based on the natural and conventional justice. - **Catholic Church-** St. Thomas Aquinas (Summa Theologiae). He states that a law that fails to conform to natural or divine law is not law at all. **-** A government, in other words, that abuses its authority by enacting laws which are unjust (unreasonable or against the common good) forfeits its right to be obeyed because it lacks moral authority. Such a law Aquinas calls a 'corruption of law'. He distinguishes between four categories of law: 4. [the eternal law] (divine reason known only to God), 5. [natural law] (the participation of the eternal law in rational creatures, discoverable by reason), 6. [divine law] (revealed in the scriptures), and 7. [human law] (supported by reason, and enacted for the common good). - **[HUGO DE GROOT (Grotius)-]** he asserts that, even if God did not exist, natural law would have the same content. [ ] ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Note: [**Intersection of Law and Morals**: Natural law represents the point where law and morals intersect, suggesting that what naturally is, ought to be](https://edgeservices.bing.com/edgesvc/chat?udsframed=1&form=SHORUN&clientscopes=chat,noheader,udsedgeshop,channelstable,ntpquery,devtoolsapi,udsinwin11,udsdlpconsent,udscstart,cspgrd,&shellsig=52f463189aedc60bdbf10ca220f6cc1c4e73d5ca&setlang=en-US&darkschemeovr=1&udsps=0&udspp=0#sjevt%7CDiscover.Chat.SydneyClickPageCitation%7Cadpclick%7C0%7Cecb406e2-9063-4621-a84e-e82bdd5e5a59). ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **[Natural Rights]** 8. **[THOMAS HOBBES-]** he describe life before social contract as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" emphasizing the chaotic and dangerous nature of human existence w/o government. that we are in a natural state of perpetual war of all against all, where no morality exists, and all live in constant fear - Natural law teaches the necessity of self-preservation. That under social contract, individuals surrender their natural freedom to create an orderly society. - We tend to wrangle, he argues, for three main reasons: competition (for limited supplies of material possessions), distrust, and glory (we remain hostile in order to preserve our powerful reputations). 2\. **[JOHN LOCKE]**- be believed that the rights to life, liberty, and property are the rights given by God and are absolute. Before social contract, life was generally peaceful but lacked adequate protection for property. Thus, to protect this right, individuals consent to form a government, which must respect and safeguard these rights. -If a government fails to protect natural rights, people have the right to overthrow it. 3**[. JEAN-JACQUES ROUSSEAU]**- natural rights are inherent and cannot be removed. Individuals enter into an agreement to form a general will that will represent the collective interest of the people. It emphasizes the participatory democracy that the idea that legitimate laws must reflect the general will of the people. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Hobbes natural rights come first, and natural law is derived from them, Locke derives natural rights from natural law -- i.e. from reason. Hobbes discerns a natural right of every person to everything, Locke argues that our natural right to freedom is constrained by the law of nature and its directive that we should not harm each other in 'life, health, liberty, or possessions'. Locke advocates a limited form of government: the checks and balances among branches of government and the genuine representation in the legislature would, in his view, minimize government and maximize individual liberty ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lon Fuller- he believes that the main purpose of law is to guide human behavior through rules. - **Eight Principles**: He outlines eight principles that make a legal system effective: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. **[JOHN FINNIS]**- (contemporary natural law theory) he emphasizes that laws should serve the common good of the community and unjust laws lac moral authority. he argues that justice involves fostering the common good and includes **absolute rights** like not being tortured or lied to. 'basic forms of human flourishing that is essential features that contribute to a fulfilling life: 1\. Life 2\. Knowledge 3\. Play 4\. Aesthetic experience 5\. Sociability (friendship) 6\. Practical reasonableness 7\. 'Religion' [These seven basic goods are combined by Finnis with the following nine 'basic requirements of practical reasonableness': ] 1\. The active pursuit of goods 2\. A coherent plan of life 3\. No arbitrary preference among values 4\. No arbitrary preference among persons 5\. Detachment and commitment 6\. The (limited) relevance of consequences: efficiency within reason 7\. Respect for every basic value in every act 8\. The requirements of the common good 9\. Following one's conscience b. **Legal Positivism** - asserts that law is a set of rules and norms created by human beings and that there is no necessary connection between law and morality. - [Legal positivism asserts that the existence and content of law depend on social facts, such as legislative acts, judicial decisions, and customs, rather than on moral considerations](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_positivism) - This theory maintains a clear distinction between law and morality. [According to legal positivists, a law is valid not because it is just or moral, but because it has been enacted by a legitimate authority and is generally accepted by society](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_positivism). - We follow the law because it is the law, period - Positivists are positive on what the law "posits" by the authority given to the State or by socially accepted rules. Also known as "the command theory," positivism highlights obedience to the content and expression of the law with the adage "dura lex, sed lex" (the law is hard, but that is the law) and "quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem" (whatever pleases the prince has the force of law). - Positivism is also referred as "conventionalism." Law is purely a product of human will, not of some natural law or divine will. Laws are made out of explicit or implicit agreements, treaties, or conventions in society, not due to some extra-legal reality like natural rights, divine providence, etc. although the agreement may mention these concepts. There is no underlying substance, principle, or content that the law must conform. It need only be procedurally correct to be valid. - As David Hume expounded, what the law "is" is another thing from what the law "should be." One may not feel the moral or practical duty to follow a defective law but still, one has the legal duty to do so because it is the law. Otherwise, the law will be disobeyed every time one finds a reason to disagree. Hume argued that we cannot demonstrate on what the law should be, but on the facts of what the law is ("social fact thesis"). We argue on legal, not moral, issues. - In reply to Hume's objection that natural, rational, or moral laws cannot be scientifically postulated, proponents of natural law would answer that human needs can be mapped clinically. Sociology, biology, and anthropology have provided studies on general human aspirations or "human nature" for law to consider if it is to be good order at all. The lawyer Jeremy Bentham, the father or modern utilitarianism, and his student John Austin, also popularized positivism. Bentham called natural law "nonsense upon stilts," and distinguished the "expositors" of the law (those who explain the law for what it really is) from the "censors" (those who criticize the law in relation to non-legal notions). Austin, professor of British jurisprudence, held that the relationship between law and morality is only accidental and that the law is its own criterion. Law ushers its own majesty and command without need for moral reference. A developed legal system where unqualified allegiance is paid is a mark of an independent state system. As a separate science, it will be enough to cite the law. Other proponents of positivism include Hans Kelsen, who wanted to separate "legal science" from "legal politics," which evaluates law based on what is politically correct. - c. **Legal Realism** - emphasizes the real-world effects of law and suggests that law is shaped by social, economic, and political factors. - [**Focus on Practical Outcomes**: Legal realism asserts that the law should be understood based on its practical effects and how it is applied in real-life situations, rather than just theoretical principles](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_realism). - Legal realists advocate for an empirical approach to studying law, similar to the methods used in natural sciences. [They believe that hypotheses about the law should be tested against observations of how the law operates in practice](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_realism) - [**Judicial Decision-Making**: This theory highlights that judges' decisions are influenced by various factors, including social, economic, and political contexts, as well as their personal experiences and biases](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_realism)[^2^](https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/legal_realism). It challenges the notion that judicial decisions are purely objective and based solely on legal rules. - Law is determined by the actual practices of courts, law officers, and law enforcers; by real world practice. Human factors and realities are unavoidable in hard cases, and judges must be able to take these into consideration. Decisions must be based on the judge's idea of justice, conditioned by his values, background, and acquaintance with social forces d. **Legal Interpretivism** - emphasizes the role of interpretation in understanding and applying the law. - asserts that the meaning of legal texts is not fixed. [Instead, it requires interpretation, considering context, intent, and societal values](https://lawslearned.com/legal-interpretivism/) - [views law not as a set of given data or physical facts but as something constructed through the practice of lawyers and judges](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretivism_%28legal%29). [It opposes both legal positivism, which sees law as a set of rules created by human beings, and natural law theory, which sees law as based on moral principles inherent in human nature](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interpretivism_%28legal%29). - Legal interpretivism acknowledges that law is dynamic and must adapt to societal changes. [This adaptability is essential for addressing contemporary legal issues that may not have been anticipated by the original drafters of the law](https://lawslearned.com/legal-interpretivism/). ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Note: Integration of Morality**: Unlike legal positivism, legal interpretivism does not separate law from morality. [It suggests that legal interpretation involves moral reasoning and that principles play a crucial role in judicial decisions](https://lawslearned.com/legal-interpretivism/) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- e. **Modern Theories** i. Legal Realism - that emphasizes the influence of social, economic, and contextual factors on the law, rather than viewing it as a set of abstract rules. - Legal realism advocates for understanding law through empirical evidence and real-world outcomes. [It suggests that judges' decisions are influenced by personal biases, social conditions, and public policy considerations](https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/legal_realism). - Legal realists argue that law should be studied and applied in a way that reflects its practical effects on society. [This includes considering the impact of legal decisions on different social groups and the broader community](https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/legal_realism) ii. **The Path of Law** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | the key insights from **"The Path of Law"** by Oliver Wendell Holmes | | Jr.: | | | | **Purpose of Law**: The primary goal of studying law is to | | **predict** how the public force, through courts, will act in various | | situations. | | | | **Distinction Between Law and Morality**: Holmes emphasizes the | | **importance of separating legal concepts from moral ideas** to | | understand the law effectively. | | | | **Role of History**: The study of legal history is crucial for | | understanding current laws, but the focus should be on how it | | **illuminates the present**. | | | | **Law and Social Advantage**: Legal rules should be justified by | | their **social advantages**, and lawyers should consider these when | | formulating and applying laws. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ iii. **Bad Man Theory** - Holmes instead argued for "the bad man model." In crafting a law or deciding a case, always think from the perspective of the bad man, not the good man. The bad man, at the end of the day, cares only for the consequences of the law, of what the courts will do to him, and the rest are irrelevant. Would the law deter the bad man or not? Holmes explained that nearly every man wants to avoid disobeying the law when confronted with disagreeable consequences (bad man perspective), but not all would obey the law for its sake even if without consequences (good man perspective). This is why the point of view of the bad man is a better way to ensure that everyone will obey. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | The "bad man" theory, proposed by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr., suggests | | that the law should be understood from the perspective of a person | | who is only interested in the consequences of their actions, rather | | than their moral or ethical implications. This "bad man" is concerned | | solely with avoiding punishment and maximizing personal gain. | | | | Key points of the theory include: | | | | - **Predictive Nature of Law**: The law is seen as a set of | | predictions about what courts will do in response to certain | | actions. | | | | - **Focus on Consequences**: The "bad man" is interested in the | | practical outcomes of legal rules, not their moral | | justifications. | | | | - **Separation of Law and Morality**: Holmes argues that legal | | duties are distinct from moral duties, emphasizing the importance | | of understanding the law in terms of its practical effects rather | | than its ethical foundations. | | | | This theory helps to clarify the distinction between legal and moral | | obligations, focusing on the practical application of the law. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Here are the main points: - [**Perspective of the Law**: Holmes argued that the law should be understood from the viewpoint of a "bad man" who is indifferent to morality and ethics but is concerned with avoiding punishment and legal consequences^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_theory_of_law). - **Prediction of Legal Outcomes**: According to Holmes, the law is best defined as a prediction of how courts will behave. [This means that the "bad man" calculates his actions based on what will keep him out of jail or prevent him from paying damages^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_theory_of_law). - [**Influence on Legal Realism**: This theory significantly influenced American legal realism by emphasizing the practical outcomes of legal decisions over abstract principles^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_theory_of_law). - **Criticism**: Critics like H.L.A. [Hart argued that this theory overlooks the internal perspective of law-abiding citizens who follow the law because they believe it ought to be obeyed](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediction_theory_of_law) iv. **Legal Interpretivism** - jurisprudence that emphasizes the role of interpretation in understanding and applying the law. - Legal interpretivism argues that law is not just a set of fixed rules but involves interpreting these rules in light of moral principles and societal values. [This contrasts with legal positivism, which views law as a system of rules determined by social facts](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228741). - The theory is closely associated with Ronald Dworkin, who argued that legal decisions should be based on principles that provide the best moral justification for the legal practices of a community. [According to Dworkin, judges should interpret laws in a way that best fits and justifies the legal system as a whole](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228741). - rejects the strict separation between law and morality. [It posits that legal interpretation inherently involves moral reasoning, and that legal principles are intertwined with moral values](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228741). discusses various legal philosophies and principles, but here are some **key human rights principles** that are generally recognized: - **Equality and Non-Discrimination**: Every individual is entitled to the same rights and freedoms without discrimination of any kind. - **Right to Life and Security**: Everyone has the right to life, liberty, and personal security. - **Freedom of Expression**: Individuals have the right to express their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation or censorship. - **Right to Fair Trial**: Everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal. - - Legal interpretivism emphasizes understanding the context in which laws are applied. [This includes considering historical, social, and cultural factors that influence legal interpretation](https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228741) v. **Pure Theory of Law** - Kelsen's theory views law as a system of norms, distinct from moral, social, or political influences. [It aims to describe the law as it is, not as it should be^1^](https://blog.ipleaders.in/pure-theory-law-exhaustive-analysis/). - **Grundnorm (Basic Norm)**: The theory is built on the concept of a Grundnorm, or basic norm, which is the foundational rule that gives validity to all other norms within the legal system. [For example, in many legal systems, the constitution serves as the Grundnorm](https://blog.ipleaders.in/pure-theory-law-exhaustive-analysis/) - **Separation from Other Sciences**: Kelsen emphasized that the study of law should be separate from other disciplines like sociology, psychology, and ethics. [This "purity" is meant to ensure that legal analysis remains objective and scientific](https://blog.ipleaders.in/pure-theory-law-exhaustive-analysis/). **by Roscoe Pound:** - **Purpose of Legal Philosophy**: Legal philosophy has been crucial in shaping human institutions and the administration of justice, influencing legal development and providing a framework for understanding law. - **Historical Context**: The text explores the evolution of legal philosophy from ancient Greek thinkers to modern social philosophers, highlighting its impact on legal systems and societal order. **Philosophy of Law** - **"philosophy"** (from the Greek philos and sophia) means the "love" of "wisdom," then "philosophy of law" is the "love of the wisdom of the law." - **law** is an institution to satisfy social wants, by ordering human conduct through a politically organized society with a systematic and orderly application of force. The purpose of the law is not to impose a particular sector's will upon others, but to integrate groups by reconciling, mediating, and controlling different interests. Competing interests are essential to a dynamic society. According to supreme court: law is a rule that is established to guide our actions with no binding effect until it is enacted. So it has no application to past times but only for the future time. it is a rule of conduct, just, obligatory, formulated by legitimate power for the common observance and benefit. It is the science of normal laws founded on the rational nature of man that governs his free activity for the realization of the individual and societal ends of life and concreate sense it is a rule of conduct, just, obligatory, formulated by legitimate power for the common observance and benefit. **a. Socrates** -often regarded as the father of western philosophy, he is known for his method of questioning, he emphasize the importance of moral reasoning in understanding laws. He believed that law should reflect ethical principles by focusing more on the ethical questions and the examination of human life. \- his method involves asking series of questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. - **Ethics and Virtue**: Socrates believed that knowledge and virtue are closely connected. He argued that people do wrong because they are ignorant of what is truly good. [Therefore, to know the good is to do the good^2^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socrates). **Justice according to Socrates:** In Plato's *Republic*, Socrates defines justice as each person doing what they are naturally best suited for and not meddling in others' affairs. [He believes that justice in an individual mirrors justice in a city, where everyone performs their designated role harmoniously^1^](https://learn.saylor.org/mod/book/view.php?id=30539&chapterid=6504). [This concept ties justice to the virtues of temperance, wisdom, and courage, suggesting that justice sustains and perfects these virtues^1^](https://learn.saylor.org/mod/book/view.php?id=30539&chapterid=6504). - [Socrates also emphasizes that a just person is inherently good and virtuous, embodying righteousness in their actions and character^2^](https://ancientpedia.com/socrates-on-justice/). - Is there a particular aspect of Socrates' definition that interests you? **B. Plato** \- was a pivotal figure in the history of Western philosophy, he argued for a just society governed by philosopher kings who understand the forms, including the form of justice. \-  [He posited that the material world is a shadow of a higher reality consisting of immutable and eternal Forms or Ideas, such as Justice, Beauty, and Equality^1^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato). \- **Epistemology**: In works like "The Republic," Plato explored the nature of knowledge, distinguishing between belief and true knowledge. [He argued that true knowledge is about the Forms, which are accessible only through reason^2^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato). i\. Republic \- Plato's "The Republic" has had a profound impact on Western thought, influencing various fields such as philosophy, political science, and education. [Its exploration of justice, the ideal state, and the nature of reality continues to be studied and debated^2^](https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Republic). - [**Ideal State**: Plato describes his vision of a perfect society, known as Kallipolis, ruled by philosopher-kings who possess knowledge of the Forms, especially the Form of the Good^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_%28Plato%29). ii\. The Laws -  Unlike his earlier work "The Republic," which presents an ideal state ruled by philosopher-kings, "The Laws" offers a more pragmatic approach to governance and legislation - R[**ole of Law**: Plato emphasizes the importance of laws in regulating all aspects of society, including social, religious, and moral behavior^2^](https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/59653/frontmatter/9780521859653_frontmatter.pdf). - **Key Differences from "The Republic"** - [**Realism vs. Idealism**: While "The Republic" presents an idealized vision of a perfect state, "The Laws" is more concerned with practical governance and the realities of human nature^2^](https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/59653/frontmatter/9780521859653_frontmatter.pdf). - [**Role of Religion**: "The Laws" places a greater emphasis on the role of religion in maintaining social order and moral behavior^3^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_%28dialogue%29). **Significance** "The Laws" is considered one of the most important works of ancient Greek political thought. [It provides a comprehensive reflection on the enterprise of legislation and its role in shaping society^2^](https://assets.cambridge.org/97805218/59653/frontmatter/9780521859653_frontmatter.pdf). **Justice according to plato:** Plato's concept of justice is a central theme in his work, "The Republic." According to Plato, justice is not merely about adhering to laws or the triumph of the stronger over the weaker. Instead, it is about the harmonious structure of both the individual soul and the state. **Justice in the Individual** Plato believed that the human soul consists of three parts: 1. **Rational**: The logical and reasoning part. 2. **Spirited**: The part associated with emotions and courage. 3. **Appetitive**: The part related to desires and appetites. [Justice in an individual is achieved when these three parts are in harmony, with the rational part ruling over the spirited and appetitive parts^1^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/plato-theory-of-justice/). **Justice in the State** Similarly, Plato envisioned a just state as one where society is divided into three classes: 1. **Rulers**: The philosopher-kings who possess wisdom and rationality. 2. **Guardians**: The soldiers who exhibit courage and protect the state. 3. **Producers**: The artisans and farmers who provide for the material needs of the state. [In a just state, each class performs its appropriate role without interfering with the others, ensuring the overall harmony and good of the whole](https://politicalscienceblog.com/plato-theory-of-justice/)[^2^](https://reasonandmeaning.com/2019/02/24/summary-of-justice-in-platos-philosophy/). **Ethical Foundation** Plato's theory of justice is deeply rooted in ethics. [He argued that justice is a moral virtue that binds individuals together in a society, creating a just and rightful state](https://politicalscienceblog.com/plato-theory-of-justice/)[^3^](https://bing.com/search?q=justice+according+to+plato). **C. Aristotle** \- he discussed the role of law in achieving the common good and maintaining social order. He distinguished between natural law (universal principles) and positive law (laws enacted by governments) \- **Rule of Law:** Aristotle emphasized the importance of the **rule of law** over the rule of individuals. [He argued that laws, being products of reason, are less likely to be swayed by personal biases and emotions](https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rule-law/) \- [In his work "Politics," he explored whether it is better to be ruled by the best leader or the best laws, ultimately advocating for laws as the foundation of a just society^1^](https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/rule-law/). \- Aristotle's political philosophy is grounded in the idea of teleology, which posits that everything in nature has a purpose. [For humans, this purpose is to achieve the good life, which can only be realized within a political community](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/) \- Aristotle views the polis as the highest form of community, one that enables its citizens to achieve their full potential. [He argues that humans are "political animals" by nature and that living in a polis is essential for achieving eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_%28Aristotle%29) **Types of Justice** Aristotle distinguished between different types of justice: - [Distributive Justice: Concerned with the fair distribution of resources and honors among members of the community based on merit^2^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). - [Corrective Justice: Focuses on rectifying wrongs and restoring balance when injustices occur, typically through legal means^2^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). - [Legal Justice: Encompasses adherence to laws that promote the common good^2^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). Natural Law Aristotle believed in a form of natural law, which posits that certain principles of justice are inherent in nature and can be discovered through reason. [He distinguished between what is "just by nature" and what is "just by law," arguing that natural justice is universal and not dependent on human conventions^3^](https://www.britannica.com/topic/natural-law). Law and Ethics For Aristotle, law and ethics are closely connected. He saw laws as instruments to cultivate virtue among citizens and promote the common good. [Laws should be based on reason and aim to foster a moral and just society^2^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). Practical Wisdom Aristotle introduced the concept of practical wisdom (phronesis), which is the ability to make sound judgments in specific situations. [He believed that good laws should be crafted and interpreted by those who possess practical wisdom, ensuring that they serve the community's best interests^4^](https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-6730-0_411-1). Aristotle's ideas on law continue to influence contemporary legal and political thought, emphasizing the importance of reason, justice, and the common good. Aristotle's "Politics" is a seminal work in political philosophy, exploring the nature, purpose, and organization of the polis (city-state). Here's an overview of its key themes and ideas: Main Themes - Teleology: Aristotle's political philosophy is grounded in the idea of teleology, which posits that everything in nature has a purpose. [For humans, this purpose is to achieve the good life, which can only be realized within a political community^1^](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/). - The Polis: Aristotle views the polis as the highest form of community, one that enables its citizens to achieve their full potential. [He argues that humans are "political animals" by nature and that living in a polis is essential for achieving eudaimonia (flourishing or happiness)^2^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_%28Aristotle%29). - Types of Government: Aristotle categorizes governments into six types, based on whether they are ruled by one, few, or many, and whether they aim for the common good or the rulers' interest: - Monarchy (rule by one for the common good) - Aristocracy (rule by few for the common good) - Polity (rule by many for the common good) - Tyranny (rule by one for the ruler's interest) - Oligarchy (rule by few for the rulers' interest) - [Democracy (rule by many for the rulers' interest)](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)^(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_%28Aristotle%29)(https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle/Political-theory)^. Key Concepts - Citizenship: Aristotle defines a citizen as someone who participates in the judicial and deliberative functions of the polis. [Citizenship is not just a legal status but an active role in the governance of the community](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)[^2^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_%28Aristotle%29). - Virtue and Education: He emphasizes the importance of virtue and education in achieving a just society. [Laws should aim to cultivate virtuous citizens who can contribute to the common good](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)[^3^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle/Political-theory). - [Mixed Government: Aristotle advocates for a mixed government, combining elements of democracy and oligarchy, to balance the interests of different social classes and prevent the excesses of any single form of government](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)[^3^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Aristotle/Political-theory). Structure "Politics" is divided into eight books, each addressing different aspects of political theory: 1. Book I: Introduction to the polis and the nature of political rule. 2. Book II: Critique of existing political systems and theories, including Plato's "Republic." 3. Book III: Examination of citizenship and different forms of government. 4. Book IV-VI: Analysis of various political institutions and the best practical government. 5. [Book VII-VIII: Discussion on the ideal state and the role of education in achieving it](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)[^4^](http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/politics.html). Legacy Aristotle's "Politics" has had a profound influence on Western political thought, shaping ideas about governance, citizenship, and the role of the state. [His emphasis on empirical observation and practical wisdom continues to resonate in contemporary political theory](https://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/politics/section1/)[^2^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_%28Aristotle%29). Justice according to Aristotle: Aristotle's concept of justice is a cornerstone of his ethical and political philosophy. [He defines justice as a virtue that enables individuals to give each person their due, treating others fairly and respecting their rights^1^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). Aristotle's theory of justice is divided into three main categories: 1. **Distributive Justice**: This refers to the fair distribution of goods and resources within a society. [Aristotle believed that distributive justice is based on the principle of proportionality, meaning individuals should receive rewards or punishments proportional to their contributions^1^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). 2. **Corrective Justice**: This type of justice deals with rectifying wrongs. [It focuses on holding individuals accountable for their actions and ensuring that they are punished appropriately to maintain order and deter future wrongdoings^1^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). 3. **Legal Justice**: This encompasses the laws and regulations that govern a society. [Legal justice ensures that laws are applied fairly and consistently, contributing to the overall order and stability of the community^1^](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/). [Aristotle also emphasizes that justice involves both the right comprehension of what justice demands and the emotional inclination to act on these correct judgments, even when it requires sacrificing self-interest](https://politicalscienceblog.com/aristotles-theory-of-justice/)[^2^](https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-007-6730-0_923-1). **[D. Cicero]** Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BCE) was a prominent Roman statesman, orator, and philosopher whose contributions to the philosophy of law have had a lasting impact. Here are some key aspects of his legal philosophy: - Defines law as a natural force or the highest reason that commands the people of what should and not should be done. it is serves as the reason of the man's intelligent to command rights and forbid the wrongdoings in the actions of the people living the same territory. -  He insisted that true law is right reason in agreement with nature, and it is morally binding on all people. [This means that any human law that contradicts natural law is not a true law and should not be followed](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy) because he belive that human laws must be align with natural law to be valid Natural Law - Foundation in Stoicism: Cicero's concept of natural law was heavily influenced by Stoic philosophy. [He believed that true law is universal and based on reason, aligning with the natural order of the universe^1^](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy). - [Right Reason: For Cicero, "law in the proper sense is right reason in harmony with nature." This means that laws should reflect objective moral truths and be consistent with the rational nature of human beings^1^](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy). Key Works - "De Legibus" (On the Laws): In this dialogue, Cicero outlines his vision of a legal system grounded in natural law. [He argues that human-made laws (leges) should be derived from higher, universal principles of justice](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy)[^2^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy). - "De Re Publica" (On the Republic): Here, Cicero discusses the ideal state and the role of justice and law in maintaining social order. [He emphasizes the importance of a mixed constitution and the rule of law](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy)[^2^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy). Practical Wisdom - Law and Practical Wisdom: Cicero viewed law as an expression of practical wisdom (prudentia). [He believed that laws should guide citizens towards virtuous living and the common good](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy)[^3^](https://bing.com/search?q=Cicero+philosophy+of+law). Influence and Legacy - Integration of Philosophy and Law: Cicero's writings bridged the gap between Greek philosophical concepts and Roman legal practice. [His ideas on natural law influenced later thinkers, including the medieval scholastics and Enlightenment philosophers^1^](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy). - [Impact on Western Legal Tradition: Cicero's emphasis on natural law and the moral foundations of legal systems has had a profound impact on the development of Western legal thought](https://www.libertarianism.org/columns/ciceros-natural-law-political-philosophy)[^2^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy). Cicero's integration of philosophy and law continues to be relevant, offering insights into the relationship between legal systems and moral principles. i.De Ligibus "De Legibus" (On the Laws) is a Socratic dialogue written by Marcus Tullius Cicero during the final years of the Roman Republic. It serves as a sequel to his earlier work, "De Re Publica" (On the Republic), and explores the foundations of law and justice. Main Themes - Natural Law: Cicero argues that true law is universal and based on reason, aligning with the natural order. [He believes that human-made laws should reflect these higher principles of justice^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Legibus). - Role of Religion: The dialogue discusses the importance of religious laws and their role in maintaining social order. [Cicero advocates for a return to the religious laws of Rome's early kings^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Legibus). - [Reform of the Roman Constitution: Cicero proposes reforms to the Roman constitution, aiming to restore harmony among the classes and improve the functioning of the state^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Legibus). Structure "De Legibus" is divided into three surviving books: 1. Book I: Discusses the concept of natural law and its relationship to human law. 2. Book II: Recasts the religious laws of Rome, emphasizing their importance in maintaining social cohesion. 3. [Book III: Proposes reforms to the Roman constitution, focusing on creating a more just and stable political system^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Legibus). Significance Cicero's "De Legibus" is crucial for understanding his legal philosophy and the broader context of Roman political thought. [It reflects his conservative and traditionalist beliefs, aiming to renovate rather than revolutionize the existing order^1^](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_Legibus). Law- is a rule of conduct that is usually refers to the customs or /?formal enactment of the government which it becomes considers as binding upon the members of the community. This is not only the source of normative conduct for there are also religion, morality, and customs that could also serves as the source or foundation of the law. - According to black's law dictionary, law refers to the equity as fairness, impartiality and evenhanded dealing, body of principles constituting what is fair and right. **HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO CICERO** Cicero's perspective on the history of philosophy is deeply rooted in his own education and experiences. - **Influence of Greek Schools**: Cicero studied under prominent philosophers from the Epicurean, Stoic, and Academic schools. [He was particularly influenced by the Academic Skepticism of Philo of Larissa^1^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy)[^2^](https://iep.utm.edu/cicero-roman-philosopher/). - **Philosophy and Politics**: For Cicero, philosophy was a tool for effective political action. [He believed that philosophical understanding was essential for an orator](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy)[^2^](https://iep.utm.edu/cicero-roman-philosopher/). - [**Philosophical Works**: Cicero's major philosophical writings include "De Republica," "De Legibus," and "De Officiis." These works aimed to interpret Roman history through the lens of Greek political theory^1^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy)[^2^](https://iep.utm.edu/cicero-roman-philosopher/). - **Skepticism and Ethics**: He leaned towards Academic Skepticism in epistemology, preferring probability over certainty. [In ethics, he was more dogmatic, often aligning with Stoic principles^1^](https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cicero/Philosophy)[^3^](https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2008/2008.06.32). **ABSOLUTE RATIONAL** [In philosophy, the concept of "absolute rationality" can be understood as the absence of irrationalities such as bias, circularity, dogmatism, and inconsistency^1^](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy/article/abs/rationality-as-an-absolute-concept/A1B9B2EC711CF29B7F75205CC75D9009). This means that rationality, in its absolute form, is characterized by a complete adherence to logical principles and the avoidance of any form of irrational thinking. Rationalism, more broadly, is the philosophical view that reason is the chief source and test of knowledge. [It holds that reality has an inherently logical structure, and certain truths can be grasped directly by the intellect without the need for sensory experience](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/philosophy/article/abs/rationality-as-an-absolute-concept/A1B9B2EC711CF29B7F75205CC75D9009)[^2^](https://www.britannica.com/topic/rationalism). This approach contrasts with empiricism, which emphasizes sensory experience as the foundation of knowledge. **RELATIVE JUSTICE** Relative justice in philosophy often refers to the idea that concepts of justice can vary based on cultural, social, or individual perspectives. This contrasts with **absolute justice**, which suggests that there are universal principles of justice that apply to all people at all times. One notable work on this topic is Tamler Sommers' book, *Relative Justice: Cultural Diversity, Free Will, and Moral Responsibility*. Sommers argues that moral responsibility and justice cannot be understood without considering cultural diversity. [He suggests that different cultures have different intuitions about moral responsibility, which challenges the idea of universally applicable conditions for justice^1^](https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691139937/relative-justice). [In broader philosophical discussions, relative justice is closely related to moral relativism, which posits that moral judgments are true or false only relative to specific cultural or historical contexts, and no single standpoint is uniquely privileged over others^2^](https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/).