Philo-Week-4-Methods-of-Philosophy.pdf

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON ROBERT R. SAMONTE, MA, LPT MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES After going through this learning material, you are expected to: 1. Distinguish opinion from truth (Ic-2.1); 2. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth (I...

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON ROBERT R. SAMONTE, MA, LPT MOST ESSENTIAL LEARNING COMPETENCIES After going through this learning material, you are expected to: 1. Distinguish opinion from truth (Ic-2.1); 2. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth (Id-2.2); Methods of Philosophy that lead to Wisdom and Truth In knowing the truth or falsity of a statement, we generally use the following Theories of Truth. Three Different Theories of Truth The Correspondence Theory of Truth The Correspondence Theory of Truth is probably the most widespread way of understanding the nature of truth and falsehood. Put quite simply, the Correspondence Theory argues that “truth” is whatever corresponds to reality. An idea that corresponds with reality is true, while an idea that does not correspond with reality is false. It is important to note that “truth” is not a property of “facts.” This may seem odd initially, but a distinction is being made between facts and beliefs. A fact is some set of circumstances in the world, while a belief is an opinion about what those facts are. A fact cannot be either true or false, it simply is because that is the way the world is. A belief, however, is capable of being true or false because it may or may not accurately describe the world. Under the Correspondence Theory of Truth, the reason why we label certain beliefs as “true” is because they correspond to those facts about the world. Thus, the belief that the sky is blue is a “true” belief because the sky is blue. Along with beliefs, we can count statements, propositions, sentences, etc., as capable of being true or false. Philosophizing is to think or express oneself philosophically. It considers or discusses a (matter) from a philosophical standpoint. The Coherence Theory of Truth:  The Coherence Theory of truth is probably second in popularity to the Correspondence Theory, even though it often seems to be an accurate description of how our conception of truth actually works.  Put simply: a belief is true when we are able to incorporate it in an orderly and logical manner into a larger and complex system of beliefs or, even more simply still, a belief is true when it fits in with the set of all our other beliefs without creating a contradiction. The Pragmatic Theory of Truth:  The Pragmatic Theory of truth determines whether a belief is true or not based on whether it has a useful (pragmatic) application in the world. If it does not, then it is not true. As with Coherence Theory, truth in this sense is nothing to do with the way the world ‘really is’ but is just a function of whether an idea can be used as a model to make useful predictions about what will happen in the world. As a result, pragmatic truths can only be learned through interaction with the world: we don’t discover the truth by sitting alone in a room and thinking about it. QUESTIONS?? In phenomenology, truth is based on the person's Consciousness, while in existentialism, truth is based on exercising choices and personal freedom; in postmodernism, it is accepted that fact is not absolute (i.e., cultural); and in logic, truth is based on reasoning and critical thinking. 1. The dialectic method Socrates, a Greek philosopher born in 470 BCE, is known for the Socratic Method, a form of "disciplined conversation" or dialectic. This method involves questioning individuals to expose their ignorance and contradictions, ultimately leading them to a clearer understanding of concepts like justice. Socrates aimed to achieve the "good life" by caring for the soul through knowledge. However, his method displeased the ruling elites of Athens, leading to his execution. 2. The Pragmatic Method Hundreds of years after Socrates' death, a new philosophy called pragmatism emerged in 19th- century America, inspired by the ideas of change from Hegel and Darwin. Pragmatism was initiated by Charles S. Pierce, popularized by William James, and institutionalized by John Dewey. Unlike traditional philosophy, which offers beliefs about humanity and its relationship with the world, pragmatism focuses on solving real-life problems. It is a philosophy of method rather than substance, testing beliefs in science, religion, and philosophy by their practical outcomes. For pragmatists, truth is verified through successful experience. 3. The Phenomenological Method The phenomenological method, developed by Edmund Husserl in the 19th century, was a response to the rise of naturalism in science, which explained everything in terms of the physical, neglecting the spiritual aspects of human life. Influenced by the achievements of science yet concerned about its impact on the human soul, Husserl sought to counter this by focusing on the "thinking self," inspired by René Descartes. Husserl aimed to create a philosophy free from biases by returning to immediate experience, emphasizing the world as it appears to us—what he called the "phenomenal world. He introduced the concept of phenomenological epoche, a method of setting aside biases to see the world purely as it is given in experience, ensuring that only immediate experience shapes our understanding of truth. 4. The Primary and Secondary reflections Existentialism, an influential intellectual movement with roots in the 19th- century ideas of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, focuses on personal choices and individual existence. Kierkegaard reacted against Hegel's systematic philosophy, while Nietzsche opposed the religious and rational values of 19th-century Europe. Although Kierkegaard was religious and Nietzsche atheistic, both emphasized the importance of individual choice, a key element in existentialism. In the 20th century, Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir popularized atheistic existentialism, while Gabriel Marcel and Karl Jaspers promoted religious existentialism. In the 20th century, Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir popularized atheistic existentialism, while Gabriel Marcel and Karl Jaspers promoted religious existentialism. Religious existentialists found parallels between existentialist ideas and religious themes. Gabriel Marcel introduced the concept of primary and secondary reflection as an existentialist method. Reflection, according to Marcel, arises when there is a disruption in normal routine and something valuable is at stake. He distinguishes between primary reflection, which involves distinguishing the self from the non-self (like filling out personal information on a form), and secondary reflection, which contemplates the deeper, more expansive nature of the self beyond simple categorization. Secondary reflection unites the self with the world, overcoming the separation created by primary reflection. 5. The Analytic Method For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is socially conditioned. We understand the world solely in terms of our language games—that is, our linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive it, is itself socially constructed. Analytic philosophy is the conviction that, to some significant degree, philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors are rooted in language and can be solved or avoided by a sound understanding of language and careful attention to its workings. " Two basic types of reasoning: 1. Inductive reasoning is based on observations to generalize. This reasoning is often applied in prediction, forecasting, or behavior. 2. Deductive reasoning concludes usually one broad judgment or definition and one more specific assertion, often an inference. Take for instance: All philosophers are wise. (Major premise) Confucius is a philosopher. (Minor premise) Therefore, Confucius is wise. (Conclusion) Validity and Soundness of an Argument Based on the previous example (or syllogism), if the two premises are constructed logically, then the conclusion must follow logically, the deductive argument is valid. This does not necessarily mean that the conclusion is true or false. Validity comes from a logical conclusion based on logically constructed premises (Reed- 2010). Strength of an Argument On the other hand, inductive arguments cannot prove if the premises are true, which will also determine the truth of the conclusion. Inductive reasoning proves only probable support for the conclusion. An inductive argument that succeeds in providing such probable support is strong. While an inductive argument that fails to provide such support is weak, a strong argument with true premises is cogent. For example: Jay: Do you think Congressman Gerry will be re-elected? Yna: I doubt it. His district has become more conservative in recent years. Also, 63% of the registered voters in his district are in the Opposition. This argument is both a statistical argument and a predictive argument, which are two common patterns of inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. This argument is both a statistical argument and a predictive argument, which are two common patterns of inductive reasoning. Also, the conclusion does not follow necessarily from the premises. Evaluating Truth from Opinion A fallacy is a defect in an argument other than having false premises. To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument's content. Here are some of the usually committed errors in reasoning and, thus, coming up with false conclusions and, worse, distorting the truth.