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PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR on some object which appeals to one of the lower COVERAGE...

PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR on some object which appeals to one of the lower COVERAGE drives. o In voluntary attention we concentrate our 1. The Will, Human Acts, and Voluntariness senses and our mind on some object which 2. Actions, Consequences, and Freedom of the Will does not spontaneously interest us. We 3. Accepting Me, Accepting You concentrate because we want to concentrate, 4. Accepting Others Is Not To Impose On Others and we want to concentrate because our 5. Man The Social Animal and Theories of Society intellect tells us that it is good to concentrate. 6. Social Influences and the Filipino Society o So, the existence of the will cannot be 7. Practical and Religious Views on Death denied. But what is the very nature of the will? If a will exists, then what is it? What is its object? JOHN KAVANAUGH: HUMAN FREEDOM THE WILL, HUMAN ACTS, AND VOLUNTARINESS The Will – is an intellectual tendency, or a tendency The Will – in philosophy and psychology, is a term used toward an intellectually known good. to describe the faculty of mind that is alleged to stimulate o It is different from sense appetite in that it is not motivation of purposeful activity. “chained down” by the immediacy of the sensed The concept has been variously interpreted by object. philosophers: o I know not only this object as good, but I know all Some accepting the will as a personal faculty or objects, all subjects, all that is, is good in some function: respect—at least insofar as it exists. Anything then, a. Plato because it can be seen as good, might be the object of b. Aristotle my will—whether it is a good steak, a good person, a c. Aquinas good feeling, or a good action. d. Descartes o It is precisely because a thing or action can be seen as e. Kant having good aspects that my will goes to it or ends Other seeing it as the externalized result of the toward it. The very reason that I find myself having a interaction of conflicting elements: tendency toward an object in the first place is because a. Spinoza I sense it or know it as having good things about it. It b. Leibniz is the “good” quality of the thing by which the will is c. Huma drawn or moved. Still others describe the will as the manifestation of personality: The feeling of freedom does not indicate, however, that a. Hobbes such an experience is quite primary and fundamental to b. Nietzche our behavior. c. Schopenhauer o Second and more important is that there are levels of The reality of individual will is denied altogether by the human behavior which, upon reflection and analysis, doctrine of determinism. indicate freedom as self-possession and freedom of Modern psychology considers the concept of the will as choice. unscientific (as in Skinner) and has looked to other o These levels of behavior, moreover, are not just factors such as unconscious motivation or psychological feelings. They are the incontrovertible evidence of influence to explain human actions. questioning, self-reflection, distance, and the However, the existence of the will can be demonstrated awareness of goods-precisely as conditional. philosophically and confirmed by data derived from o If these actions did not exist, I could not be doing everyday experience. For example, every act of real self- what I am doing right now. control is an implicit manifestation of the will. In such an THOMAS AQUINAS: THE WILL AND HUMAN act we are conscious of the fact that some tendency in us FREEDOM is held in check by a higher tendency. That higher Eleonore Stump tendency is the will. Aquinas' ideas about the will are a complex of three Another proof for the existence of the will is the powers of the human soul, which can be described as: phenomenon of voluntary attention. 1. The intellect (perceptive, apprehensive, Voluntary attention – is distinct from spontaneous cognitive). attention. Spontaneous attention is present in animals; 2. The Will (motive, appetitive, conative). it is the concentration of the senses and of the mind 3. Passions or Feelings (sensitive, emotive). 1|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR Eleonore Stump, in her 2003 book Aquinas, compared We have human dignity because we are intelligent and Aquinas' view of human freedom with contemporary free persons, capable of determining our own lives by our accounts of free will. own free choices. 1. Freedom is property of the whole human being, o We give this dignity to ourselves by freely choosing not a component part of a person. to shape our lives and actions in accord with the 2. The will is not independent of the intellect. truth; that is, by making good moral choices. Stump condenses Aquinas complicated picture of what o Such choices are in turn dependent upon true moral goes on in an action to these simplified five stages of a judgments. These choices performed as free persons human act (from perception to action of the will). are called human acts. Intellect – apprehends a situation and determines that Human acts – are those acts that man does as a man, that a particular end is appropriate (good) for the given is, of which he is properly master because he does them circumstances. with full knowledge and of his own will. Will – approves a simple volition for that end (or can o Human acts are therefore those acts that proceed reject, change the subject, etc.) from a deliberate will. Intellect – determines that the end can be achieved, is Acts of Man – are those acts that man performs without within the power of the agent. being master of them through his intellect and will. Will – Intention: to achieve the end through some o In principle, acts of man are not the concern of means. morals, since they are not voluntary. These include: Intellect – Counsel: determines various means to 1. The natural acts of vegetative and sense faculties achieve the end. 2. Acts of persons who lack the use of reason. Will – Electio (choice): selects the means the intellect 3. Acts of people who are asleep or under the proposes as best. influence of hypnosis, alcohol, or other drugs. Intellect – Command: says “Do the best means!”. 4. Quick, nearly automatic reactions Will – Use: exercises control over the body or mind 5. Acts performed under violence or threat of as needed. violence. One of these five stages, the electio, is most often Modifiers of Human Acts – certain factors which may identified with the liberum arbitrium - free decision or affect any of the voluntariness of human acts. These judgment. Aquinas used this term rather than free will factors may diminish one’s culpability, also known as (libera voluntas). obstacles affecting the voluntariness of human acts. Stump says that Aquinas puts limits on the liberum 1. Ignorance – lack or absence of knowledge in a arbitrium and distinguishes freedom of action (limited person capable of knowing a certain thing or things. by external constraints) from freedom of willing. He also 2. Vincible Ignorance – the type of ignorance which recognizes that mental problems can cause a loss of cannot be dispelled by ordinary diligence. intellect and so be an internal constraint on the will. 3. Invincible Ignorance – eliminates moral Following Aristotle, Aquinas in De Malo denied that the responsibility or culpability. will was necessitated. That would be heretical because it eliminates praise and blame, denying moral VINCIBLE IGNORANCE does not eliminate culpability responsibility. but lessens it. “Ignorance of the law excuses no one”, when On the other hand, for Aquinas’ God, time is an eternal one is invincibly ignorant, the act one does would be moment (totem simul). With respect to God’s without knowledge, without knowledge, there can be no foreknowledge, Aquinas is a compatibilist. But Stump is voluntariness, hence no culpability. convincing in her arguments that Aquinas may have been an incompatibilist with respect to causes, at least causes A mental agitation of disturbance brought about by the originating outside our minds. apprehension of some present or imminent danger. Aquinas followed Aristotle in allowing chance events in 1. Grave Fear – aroused by the presence of a danger. the universe as accidentally intersecting causal chains. 2. Slight Fear – aroused by a danger that is not serious. o God as divine providence was seen as executing a o A grave danger that is not very probable. plan (ratio) that includes continued governance of the One acts BECAUSE of fear – if it is fear that induces world. him to act. o Since providence means foresight, Aquinas believed o Being robbed, surrendered the wallet. in divine foreknowledge of all events, even those One acts WITH fear – fear merely accompanies one’s "chance" events. act but does not cause it. o A student fears to be caught while cheating. 2|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR Concupiscence or Passion - A movement of the sensitive It is important to try to behave in a way that has appetite which is produced by good or evil as positive consequences. apprehended by the mind. Discussions Types of Passion: Who are the key people involved? 1. Antecedent – arises spontaneously before the will What is happening? controls the situation. Why might people behave in this way? 2. Consequent - Deliberately aroused by the will to What do you think are their attitudes? ensure a more prompt and willing operation. What are the consequences of their behaviour? Violence – an external force applied by someone on How do the people involved feel? another in order to compel him to perform an action Do you think this is good or bad behaviour? against his will. Positive Action Habits – are inclination to perform some particular action What positive action could improve the situation? acquired by repetition, and characterized by a decrease Negative Action power of resistance and an increase facility of What would happen if more negative action performance. happened? The three moral determinates of the human act: Outcome Revealed 1. The object What choices did people make? 2. The end (or intention) What action was taken? 3. The circumstances What were the consequences of these actions? The object of the human act is that which is actually How did this impact on everyone’s feelings? done. From this, we get the character of the objective What could be the long term effects of this positive morality. There are actions that are objectively in action? conformity or not in conformity with the created human What would be the long term effects of negative person, and thus, actions in conformity with them or action? against them are objectively good or evil as such. Why is it important to behave and treat people in a The second moral determinate is the intention, and this is way that has positive consequences? the purpose or motive for which the agent acts. All intentions should be in conformity to the objective BARRY SCHWARTZ’S THE PARADOX OF CHOICE: truth, and again this is to be found in the eternal law. WHY MORE IS LESS Humans first of all find this “written in their hearts” and It’s not always to make a sound choice, but when we do, this participation of the rational creature in the eternal the process goes like this: law is called the natural law. 1. Determine your goal. The circumstances of an action are individual conditions 2. Determine its value. of specific acts in time and place that are not of 3. Arrange and examine the options available to reach themselves part of the nature of the action. it. Prudence is important here, and this virtue helps us to 4. Determine the likelihood of each option meeting your take correct actions in particular circumstances. goal. o Conscience as well includes an act of judgment, and 5. Choose the option with the highest likelihood of thus it applies not only to the morality of the object meeting it. and intentions of the act, but is closely tied with the 6. Use the outcome of this experience to adjust your particulars of the acts in a given situation or future goals and the way in which you make future circumstance. decisions. We are always obliged to follow our conscience, but we It's the best way to make a decision, but often, our are also responsible to form it according to the law. feelings and instincts derail the process. While you may “Conscience has rights because it has obligations.” know to keep your hand off a hot stove after being burned, it's a learned behavior rather than a conscious ACTIONS, CONSEQUENCES, AND FREEDOM OF choice; when it comes to life, we often repeat our THE WILL mistakes. Actions and Consequences Once you've established your goal, you have to figure out All our actions (spoken and physical) have how to reach it. Your beliefs, experiences and personality consequences. Some are good (positive) and some will determine the options you consider. bad (negative). Consequences are a result or an effect. FREEDOM OF THE WILL 3|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR Freedom – in general, means the absence of resistant. to choose freely before the choices is made or There are three different kinds of restraint and freedom: after it has been made. 1. Physical Freedom - is the absence of physical INDIRECT AWARENESS OF THE restraint. When a prisoner is released from prison, he FREEDOM OF WILL – Many facts of our is physically free, since he is no longer restrained by daily life, of which we are clearly aware, can the prison walls. be explained only if we are free. We 2. Moral Freedom - is the absence of moral restraint, deliberated before taking a decision, we of an obligation, of a law. Thus, in this country we weigh the reasons for or against it, and we are morally free to criticize the government. regret some of our past choices. 3. Psychological Freedom - is the absence of ❖ This surely implies that we should, psychological restraint. Psychological restraint and by inference could, have acted consist in drives which force a subject to perform differently. We admire, praise and them. reward virtuous actions and manifest Thus, a hungry, untrained dog is forced by its through our attitude the implicit hunger to eat the food, which is set before it, a belief that the person who performed scared cat cannot help running away. These them was not forced to do so. animals are not forced into their actions by any 3. Ethical Argument - If there is no freedom, there external power or moral obligation; they possess is no moral responsibility no virtue, no merit, no no psychological freedom. moral obligation, no duty, no morality. The A hungry man, on the contrary, can still refrain necessary connection between freedom and the from taking food, and a soldier frightened by spiritual realities is quite obvious and is heavy bombardment can choose to stay at his demonstrated in Ethics. post. Men possess psychological freedom. Kant, a major German Philosopher, who Psychological freedom is also called freedom of claimed that the existence of freedom was choice, since it allows the free subject to choose not demonstrated by theoretical reason, between different courses of action. It has been nevertheless was conviction from the fact of defined as that attribute of the will whereby it can duty, which he considered to be immediately act or not act (freedom of exercise), can act in evident to the practical reason. this way or in that way (freedom of “The good must be done and evil avoided.” specification). This fundamental dictate of conscience, this Arguments demonstrating the freedom of the will: moral ‘ought’, is virtually inborn every 1. Argument From Common Consent - the great human mind. It is the basis of all moral majority of men believe that their will is free. obligation and it implies freedom of the will This conviction is of the utmost practical since obligation is nothing but the necessary importance for the whole of human life. of doing something freely. Therefore, if there is order in the world, the No social life is possible without obligations majority of mankind cannot be wrong in this and duties. belief. Hence, the will is free. 4. Determinism 2. Psychological Argument - we have said that Many modern philosophers and psychologists most people naturally hold that the will is free. who deny the freedom of the will are called Why do they cling to that conviction? Because “determinists” and their system is known as they are directly and indirectly aware of their “determinism.” freedom in the very act of making a free They claim that in spite of some contrary decision; they are indirectly aware of it because appearances, man is forced or “determined” in all of the many instances of the behavior which can his actions. only be explained by admitting the freedom of Determinism is the philosophical concept that the will. every event, including human cognition and DIRECT AWARENESS OF THE behavior, decision and action, is causally FREEDOM OF OUR DECISIONS: In this determined by an unbroken chain of prior argument we claim that at the very moment occurrences or by number of forces which in which we are exercising our freedom we compel us to act as we do. are aware of it. We do not claim, on the other Hard Determinism – is the theory that because hand, that we are directly aware of being able Determinism is true, no one is free; no one has free will (or choice) and no one truly acts freely. 4|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR Determinism, as a philosophical doctrine, is sanction, verbal or non-verbal absolutely contradictory to the belief that there is reinforcement, or complex system of such a thing as freedom of the will. reward and punishment. I have Determinism asserts that “there is no free will, nothing to say about the course of that we do things, not because we decide to do action which I will take.” these, but because these were determined to us by ❖ “Give me the specifications and I’ll a number of forces which compelled us to act as give you the man. Let us control the we do.” lives of our children and see what The "Will" or person doing the choosing and can make of them.” acting would have to be a primum mobile (first ❖ In other words, this phenomenon of mover), a new beginning, or an original creative behavior control is occurring right source of activity. now in our society by means of But this cannot be, it is argued, since surely governmental, educational and actions are caused by wants and desires, wants propagandistic control techniques, and desires flow from our character, and our through in a less systematic manner. character is formed by environment and heredity. John Kavanaugh’s reflection of his own Thus every actions or events have sources which experience, which correspond to Skinner’s are external to us and are not within our control; position in Walden Two and Science and Human a proof itself for determinism and not of freedom. Behavior. Kavanaugh enumerates: The materialist claim that if we knew the material 1. I have genetic, biological and physical system called “MAN” perfectly, and if we are structures, which influence my behavior. aware of all the influences working on him, we They are part of the total me which is should be able to predict all his future activities; involved in choosing. we could write his biography on the day of his 2. I have environmental structures, which are birth. part of me – my early life and psychological 1. Argument from Biology – Biological determinism development, the culture, national and maintains that physiological factors exert a ecclesiastical framework that I find myself compelling influence in man’s life. situated in. 2. Argument from Psycho-social - Psycho-social 3. I am keenly aware of external forces and determinists emphasize a combination of demands, which impinge upon me, psychological and social factors as explaining human sometimes-creating needs even valves. conduct. On the psychological side, they point to the ACCEPTING ME, ACCEPTING YOU different drives and tendencies which impel the Another aspect of being man is his relatedness with individual; on the social side, to the continual others. This in philosophical terms is Intersubjectivity or pressure of the environment – words, customs, being with others. One manifestation of this relation with fashions, propaganda, but most of all in others is accepting OTHERS AND THEIR education, in particular, education during the first DIFFERENCES. This is the first critical component of few years of life. intersubjectivity. Let us thus further develop the idea of Their actions we should certainly sat are accepting others and their differences. determined by them, but their characters, their Acceptance – means understanding that there are aspects purposes, their circumstances, are the products of of your life that you can and cannot change. In other their heredity, their education, their environment, words, some things you have control over and some you the whole of their HISTORY. don’t. The philosophical doctrine has been given Accepting yourself means realizing that you are a scientific evidential support by the famous unique human being. Your ability to make a difference Harvard psychologist, B.F. Skinner. In his book, in your life and the lives of others depends only on the Walden Two, he stresses: amount of time and effort you put forth into your studies. ❖ “The causes for human action all lie THE POSITIVE SIDE OF ME. outside the man and that these Accepting who you are as an individual with moral causes are necessitating. Man’s potential begins with evaluating how you think about behavior is shaped and determined yourself and your abilities. Although at your age you by external forces and stimuli have not reached your full moral potential, you can whether they are familiar or cultural accept the type of person you are growing into and 5|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR determine some of the things that are important to 2. Responsibility. Today, it is often meant to denote you. duty, something imposed upon one from the THINGS I CAN AND CANNOT CONTROL outside. But responsibility, in its true sense, is an In addition, at this stage in your development, many entirely voluntary act; it is my response to the of the physical changes that you are experiencing are needs, expressed or unexpressed, of another not within your power to control. That is, you cannot human being. change the size of your feet, but there are many things that you can change and you do have control To be “responsible” means to be able and ready over. For example, you may not be able to control to “respond”. This responsibility, in the case of your height, but you can control the choices you the mother and her infant, refers mainly to the make. care for physical needs. In the love between Keep in mind that just because something is not adults, it refers mainly to the psychic needs of within your control at this point in your life doesn’t the other person. mean it will always be that way. Focus on the things you can control, like your attitude and grades, instead Responsibility could easily deteriorate into of worrying about the things you have no control domination and possessiveness, were it not for a over. third component of love, respect. BASIC ELEMENTS OF LOVE 3. Respect. Respect is not fear and awe; it denotes, Excerpts from Erich Fromm’s book, The Art of in accordance with the root of the word Loving (1956). (respicere = to look at), the ability to see a It is hardly necessary to stress the fact that the ability person as he is, to be aware of his unique to love as an act of giving depends on the character individuality. development of the person. It presupposes the attainment of a predominantly Respect means the concern that the other person productive orientation; in this orientation the person should grow and unfold as he is. Respect, thus, has overcome dependency, narcissistic omnipotence, implies the absence of exploitation. I want the the wish to exploit others, or to hoard, and has loved person to grow and unfold for his own acquired faith in his own human powers, courage to sake, and in his own ways, and not for the rely on his powers in the attainment of his goals. To purpose of serving me. If I love the other person, the degree that these qualities are lacking, he is afraid I feel one with him or her, but with him as he is, of giving himself—hence of loving. not as I need him to be as an object for my use. Beyond the element of giving, the active character of love becomes evident in the fact that it always It is clear that respect is possible only if I have implies certain basic elements, common to all forms achieved independence; if I can stand and walk of love. without needing crutches, without having to 1. Care. That love implies care is most evident in a dominate and exploit anyone else. Respect exists mother’s love for her child. No assurance of her only on the basis of freedom: “l’amour est love would strike us as sincere if we saw her l’enfant de la liberté” as an old French song lacking in care for the infant, if she neglected to says; love is the child of freedom, never that of feed it, to bathe it, to give it physical comfort; domination. and we are impressed by her love if we see her caring for the child. To respect a person is not possible without knowing him; care and responsibility would be Love is the active concern for the life and the blind if they were not guided by knowledge. growth of that which we love. Where this active concern is lacking, there is no love. This element 4. Knowledge. Knowledge would be empty if it of love has been beautifully described in the book were not motivated by concern. There are many of Jonah. layers of knowledge; the knowledge which is an aspect of love is one which does not stay at the Care and concern imply another aspect of love; periphery, but penetrates to the core. It is that of responsibility. possible only when I can transcend the concern for myself and see the other person in his own terms. 6|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was Knowledge has one more, and a more held to be justifiable. A second, and generally a later fundamental, relation to the problem of love. expedient, was the establishment of constitutional The basic need to fuse with another person so as checks, by which the consent of the community, or of a to transcend the prison of one’s separateness is body of some sort, supposed to represent its interests, was closely related to another specifically human made a necessary condition to some of the more desire, that to know the “secret of man.” important acts of the governing power. This topic is to assert one very simple principle, as There is one way, a desperate one, to know the entitled to govern absolutely the dealings of society with secret: it is that of complete power over another the individual in the way of compulsion and control, person; the power which makes him do what we whether the means used be physical force in the form of want, feel what we want, think what we want; legal penalties, or the moral coercion of public opinion. which transforms him into a thing, our thing, our That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind possession. are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self- The other path to knowing “the secret” is love. protection. That the only purpose for which power can Love is active penetration of the other person, in be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized which my desire to know is stilled by union. In community, against his will, is to prevent harm to the act of fusion, I know you, I know myself, I others. know everybody—and I “know” nothing. Love is OF THE LIBERTY OF THOUGHT AND the only way of knowledge, which in the act of DISCUSSION union answers my quest. First, if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion may, for aught we can certainly know, be Care, responsibility, respect and knowledge are true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility. mutually interdependent. They are a syndrome Secondly, though the silenced opinion be an error, it of attitudes which are to be found in the mature may, and very commonly does, contain a portion of person; that is, in the person who develops his truth; and since the general or prevailing opinion on own powers productively, who only wants to have any subject is rarely or never the whole truth, it is that which he has worked for, who has given up only by the collision of adverse opinions that the narcissistic dreams of omniscience and remainder of the truth has any chance of being omnipotence, who has acquired humility based supplied. on the inner strength which only genuine Thirdly, even if the received opinion be not only true, productivity can give. but the whole truth; unless it is suffered to be, and actually is, vigorously and earnestly contested, it will, ACCEPTING OTHERS IS NOT TO IMPOSE ON by most of those who receive it, be held in the OTHERS manner of a prejudice, with little comprehension or John Stuart Mill who is considered one of the major feeling of its rational grounds. advocates of liberty and human freedom. Fourthly, the meaning of the doctrine itself will be in To prevent the weaker members of the community from danger of being lost, or enfeebled, and deprived of its being preyed on by innumerable vultures, it was needful vital effect on the character and conduct: the dogma that there should be an animal of prey stronger than the becoming a mere formal profession, inefficacious for rest, commissioned to keep them down. good, but cumbering the ground, and preventing the But as the king of the vultures would be no less bent upon growth of any real and heartfelt conviction, from preying upon the flock than any of the minor harpies, it reason or personal experience. was indispensable to be in a perpetual attitude of defense OTHER PRINCIPLES WHICH CAN BE against his beak and claws. CONSIDERED The aim, therefore, of patriots was to set limits to the 1. Principle of Paternalism power which the ruler should be suffered to exercise over o "Paternalism" comes from the Latin pater, the community; and this limitation was what they meant meaning to act like a father, or to treat another by liberty. person like a child. ("Parentalism" is a gender- It was attempted in two ways. First, by obtaining a neutral anagram of "paternalism".) recognition of certain immunities, called political o Whenever the state acts to protect people from liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach themselves, it seeks their good; but by doing so of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which, if he did 7|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR through criminal law, it does so coercively, often relativizing the overpowering influence of external against their will. factors." – Carl Jung. 2. Legal Moralism o the view that the law can legitimately be used to Aristotle, the legendary Greek philosopher said, “Man is prohibit behaviors that conflict with society's by nature a social animal; an individual who is unsocial collective moral judgments even when those naturally and not accidentally is either beneath our behaviors do not result in physical or notice or more than human. Society is something that psychological harm to others. precedes the individual.”. o it is permissible for the state to use its coercive o Man is a social animal and must satisfy certain power to enforce society's collective morality. natural basic needs in order to survive. He must eat, drink, excrete, sleep, maintain adequate health and MAN THE SOCIAL ANIMAL AND THEORIES OF procreate. These needs constitute the innate nature of SOCIETY man. Man is a social animal and that, he loves to live in Social Philosophy – the philosophical study of questions society with other human beings, is a general conception about social behavior. It attempts to understand the about his basic behavioral pattern. patterns, changes, and tendencies of societies. Philosophical Perspectives: o One of its sub-fields is sociology. It is the study of 1. “If you want others to be happy, practice human social behavior, especially the study of the compassion. If you want to be happy, practice origins, organization, institutions, and development compassion” – Dalai Lama. of human society (webster’s dictionary). 2. “Man is, at one and the same time, a solitary being ▪ “socius”, companion or associate; and and a social being. As a solitary being, he attempts to “logos”, science or study. Etymological protect his own existence and that of those who are meaning of sociology is the science of closest to him, to satisfy his personal desires, and to society. develop his innate abilities. As a social being, he ▪ Auguste Comte, a Frenchman, is traditionally seeks to gain the recognition and affection of his considered to be the father of sociology. He fellow human beings, to share in their pleasures, to is accredited with the coining of the term comfort them in their sorrows, and to improve their sociology in 1839. conditions of life.” – Albert Einstein. THEORIES OF SOCIETY 3. “It is not the consciousness of men that determines Society is a group of people involved in persistent their being, but, on the contrary, their social being social interaction, or a large social grouping sharing that determines their consciousness.” – Karl Marx. the same geographical or social territory, typically 4. “Interdependence is and ought to be as much the subject to the same political authority and dominant ideal of man as self-sufficiency. Man is a social cultural expectations. being. Without interrelation with society, he cannot Civilizations began from the nomadic (Paleolithic) realize his oneness with the universe or suppress his to the sedentary (Neolithic) stages of man’s social egotism. His social interdependence enables him to development. test his faith and to prove himself on the touchstone 1. Plato – In The Republic, Plato hypothesizes the of reality.” – Mahatma Gandhi. formation of the ideal city, the Kallipolis, as a way to 5. “People are social beings and want interaction and embody the philosophical definition of perfect social learning is the primary form of learning, just justice. as word of mouth advertising is the highest form of ❖ For him, justice is each person in the city doing advertising.” – Stephen Covey. only the work to which they are best suited. 6. "Be The Peace You Wish To See In The World!" – ❖ “Then, it turns out that this doing one’s own work Martin Luther King, Jr. – provided that it comes to be in a certain way – 7. "We cannot think of ourselves save as to some extent is justice”. social being. Hence, we cannot separate the idea of ❖ Three classes in his Ideal Society: ourselves and our own good from our idea of others a. Producers or Workers: the laborers who and their good." – John Dewey. make the goods and services in the society. 8. "Just as man as a social being, cannot in the long run b. Guardians or Soldiers: those who keep exist without a tie to the community, so the individual order in the society and protect it from will never find the real justification for his existence, invaders. and his own spiritual and moral autonomy, anywhere c. Philosopher Kings: the most intelligent, except in an extramundane principle capable of rational, self-controlled, in love with 8|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR wisdom, and well suited to make decisions contract, made by individuals who recognized for the community, and who promote the that only the establishment of sovereign power interests of the society as a whole. could safeguard them from the insecurity of the 2. St. Thomas Aquinas – the idea of a social contract state of nature. applied to the secular state was taken by Thomas Aquinas, thereby emphasizing the temporal and SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND THE FILIPINO SOCIETY conditional nature of this institution as opposed to the Social influence occurs when one’s emotions, opinions, eternal church of God, a church of divine origin. or behaviors are affected by others. ❖ According to him, one of the natural goods to Influence means to have the capacity to have an effect on which human beings are inclined is “to live in the character, development, or behavior of someone or society”. something, or the effect itself. ❖ As he argued in his book, “Politics”, he believes Social Interaction is the process wherein members of the that political society (civitas) emerges from the society are affecting one another. needs and aspirations of human nature itself and There are three basic domains how persons are not an invention of human ingenuity nor an influence in their social behavior: artificial construction designed to make up for 1. Genetics – genetic traits determine our physiological human nature’s shortcomings. attributes. 3. Nicolo Machiavelli – He gave his thoughts on 2. Family – the primary social institution. It is a society. In his treatise The Prince, he emphasized on dynamic system of people living together united by the need of absolute monarch. For him, society meaningful and significant bonds. should be ruled absolutely by powerful person and 3. Society and culture – culture is the cumulative individual members of the society must follow in learned behavior of a society that is passed on from order to establish an orderly community. generation to generation. Machiavellianism is the theory and practice of THE FILIPINO SOCIETY absolute power: Philippine concepts about debt repayment (Utang na ❖ The society should be controlled through seizure, loob) and kinship responsibilities (Nepotismo) plays maintenance, and extension of absolute power by a major role in how society structured. The family nicely graduated use of fraud, force, and sow fear and the Catholic church are characterized the main to all people. bonding forces in Filipino society. The countryside is ❖ To control the society, one needs to depart from divided into barangay (rural communities) that have reliance on morality, including the church. their own leader or chiefs. ❖ Use of common enemy as political moves to Kapwa has ibang tao (other people) and hindi ibang holding on power and ruthless liquidation of tao (not other people). these enemies and all rivals once power is The Ibang Tao “Outsider” 5 domains: achieved. 1. Pakikitungo: civility ❖ The employment for surveillance and terrorist 2. Pakikisalamuha: act of mixing activities which can be later be disowned but 3. Pakikisama: being united with the group instead blame on the enemies. 4. Pakikibagay: conformity 4. Thomas Hobbes and John Locke – they shared the 5. Pakikilahok: act of joining enlightenment view of the world. For them, God was The Hindi Ibang Tao “One-of-us” 3 domains: the first cause but their scientific understanding of 1. Pakikipagpalagayang-loob: act of mutual trust. cause and effect shaped their view. 2. Pakikisangkot: act of joining others. ❖ Hobbes believed that in the absence of a state, 3. Pakikipag-isa: being one with others. human beings would react to each other with “Amor Propio” (self-esteem) and “Smooth great savagery. He believed that all humans had Interpersonal Relationship” (SIR). equal ability to kill on and other creating a ▪ Filipinos are sensitive to criticisms on their constant state of insecurity. own self-esteem and intuitively sharp to the ❖ Hobbes in ‘Leviathan’ stated the case for self-esteem of others as well. absolute sovereignty, while Locke in ‘Second Characteristics of Filipinos Treatises of Government’ argued the defense of ❖ Positive Traits parliamentary government and a limited liberal 1. Hospitality – this is one of the most popular state. qualities of Filipinos. Foreigners who have ❖ Hobbes and Locke argued that the state had gone to the Philippines find themselves arisen out of a voluntary agreement, or social falling in love with the warm hospitality they 9|EYAH PHILOSOPHY 1 1ST SEMESTER – QUARTER 2 – MADE BY COFFEE BEAR are shown. It’s a different kind of value Physical death can be defined from both a medical and system, which has existed for thousands of theological perspective. years. Medically speaking, death is the total and permanent 2. Respect - This is often observed- not just by cessation of all vital bodily functions. younger people- but also by people of all From a theological perspective, this is also the time that ages; children using “po” and “opo” and the person’s body is separated from their soul (the mano. immaterial part of humans). 3. Strong Family ties and religions Ancient View of Death – Most ancient people attributed 4. Generosity and Helpfulness death to the agency of the gods, elves, demons, or evil 5. Strong Work Ethic spirits who are jealous of human achievements and 6. Love and Caring beautiful human features, or who are offended by man’s ❖ Negative Traits sins. 1. Fatalism - An attitude of “what goes around, Biological View of Death - Death is viewed as a comes around” or “come what may.” We biological event, death is the end of man considered to be have a tendency to surrender our future to a living organism. It is a condition in which there is a fate. total or irreversible loss of circulatory and respiratory 2. Crab Mentality - This is prevalent in politics functions of the human body. where people tend to pull each other down to Psychological View of Death - Concept of death and clear the way for their own gain. adjustment addresses the ability to adjust to one's own 3. Procrastination or Mañana Habit - Instead death when that death is not imminent. of working on a task while there is much Theological View of Death - St. Thomas Aquinas is time, we wait for the deadline because we very clear about the nature of death. He says: "The feel lazy to start on them, or we want to use necessity of dying for Man is partly from nature and the time on other things. partly from sin.” From the point of view of the body, then 4. Hypocrisy (being a double-faced person) - Man is mortal and doomed to die. To hide our failure in following a norm, we Philosophical View of Death - All the conceptions of tend to be condemning to those who are death and of its connection with the whole of our caught red handed. existence are based on one-sided incomplete experience, 5. Ningas cogon - In Spanish, “ningas cogon” which is had in the life time before death, never after it. means a burning cogon grass. This flaming Religious Views on Death grass quickly burns out- and this best 1. Christianity - Christian beliefs about the afterlife describes one of the worst Filipino traits. vary between denominations and individual Most of us are very good at this. We are Christians, but vast majority of Christians believe in excellent at starting projects or idea some kind of heaven, in which believers enjoy the execution. Nevertheless, after a few hours or presence of God and other believers and freedom days, we lose the excitement, and we become from suffering and sin. too lazy to finish what we have started. 2. Islam - Muslims believe that the present life is only a 6. Filipino Time (Tardiness) - The Filipino preparation for the next realm of existence. time is usually associated with tardiness. 3. Hinduism - Death in Hinduism is very spiritual, and When the invitation says the program will it strongly believes in the rebirth and reincarnation of start at 7pm, it is expected to begin at 9pm. souls. 7. Inconsideration (being thoughtless of 4. Buddhism - It was awareness of death that prompted others) - We become insensitive to the needs Lord Buddha to explore the truth behind worldly of other people because we need to focus on concerns and pleasures. They believe in ourselves first. reincarnation: once a person dies on this earth, he 8. Ignoring or not following simple rules and will be reborn to a new life here and the status of that instructions - Laws and regulations are life depends on the work he did before his previous created to make communities harmonious. death. However, how can we achieve that peaceful 5. Judaism - Traditional Judaism firmly believes that neighborhood if we cannot even follow the death is not the end of human existence. However, simplest rules like crossing on the pedestrian because Judaism is primarily focused on life here and lane and not loitering around? now rather than on the afterlife, Judaism does not have much dogma about the afterlife, and leaves a PRACTICAL AND RELIGIOUS VIEWS ON DEATH great deal of room for personal opinion. 10 | E Y A H