Philosophy of the Human Person PDF

Philosophy of the Human Person  OBJECTIVES At the end of the session, students will: 1. Have basic understanding of what philosophy of the humn person is; 2. Differentiate it from other disciplines; 3. Understand the method use in philosophy of the human person 4. Under...

Philosophy of the Human Person  OBJECTIVES At the end of the session, students will: 1. Have basic understanding of what philosophy of the humn person is; 2. Differentiate it from other disciplines; 3. Understand the method use in philosophy of the human person 4. Understand its importance  INTRODUCTION Philosophy begins with a sense of wonder. Humans have always wondered about God, the world, and their own being. Early Greek philosophers were primarily interested in the nature of the cosmos, while medieval philosophers focused on God. However, the Renaissance and Reformation, along with the work of Descartes, marked a shift in philosophy towards the study of the human being.  INTRODUCTION It does not mean that early philosophers were unaware of the importance of appreciating the human person as an object of inq uiry. In fact, Socrates and a few other thinkers attempted to understand the human person. With the rise of the experimental sciences in the modern times, the human person has become the primary and exclusive object of many different disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, or anthropology. But the approach and object of the philosophy of the person in different from these sciences.  INTRODUCTION Philosophy of the Human Person can be understood as an attempt to unify different ways of understanding human nature. While most philosophers have their distinctive understanding of the human person, Philosophy of the Human Person as a specific discipline in philosophy emerged in the later modern period as an outgrowth of developing methods in philosophy, such as phenomenology and existentialism.  INTRODUCTION Phenomenology is the methodical reflection on human experience (first-person perspective) as well as from the philosopher's own personal experience. Existentialism is concerned with interpersonal relationships and the the dynamics of these relationships  DEFINITION Philosophy of the Human Person can be defined as the study of human beings, which interprets the data of experience in the light of metaphysical principles. It has two sources: the data of experience, supplied mainly by everyday experience and confirmed by experimental sciences; and metaphysical principles, supplied by ontology or metaphysics.  DEFINITION It is also the branch of philosophy that concerns itself with trying to respond to the deepest and perennial q uestions about human beings. Our goal here is to respond to these issues. But we must remember that we are dealing with human beings, who are meant to be understood, rather than a problem to be solved once and for all. We cannot demand a conclusive, authoritative answer, but only a response.  DISTINCTION Philosophy of the Human Person is also known as Philosophical Anthropology, which seeks to unify the empiritical investigations of human nature in an effort to understand individuals as creatures of their environment and creators oftheir values. distinct from: Social Anthropology studies human beings, society and cultures through a comparative lens. Biological Anthropology studies the evolution of humans, their variability, and adaptations to environmental stresses. Cultural Anthropology deals with the study of human societies and cultures.  DISTINCTION Philosophy of the Human Person is also called Rational Psychology, that delves deeper into the human psyche by rational reflection on the implications of human activity. Psychology comes from the Greek words psyche (mind) and logos (science). Empirical Psychology is the science of the facts and laws of mental life, as acq uired by everyday experience. Experimental Psychology tries to understand the human person in terms of reading, measurement, and behavior patterns obtained from experimental observation.  METHOD Every investigation req uires a method. A method is a systematic way of doing something. In science, a method is a series of steps taken to acq uire knowledge. Philosophy of the Human Person, being a rational investigation into the nature of human beings, also needs a method so that it can bring out its subject matter in a lucid and logical manner. experimental observation.  METHOD Every investigation begins with observation. However, a mere scientific study of the human person is insufficient, as it gives only a partial view of human reality. Philosophers attempt to understand the ultimate causes of the human person, and to develop a total and complete picture of them. So in the Philosophy of the Human Person, we use observations regarding human beings, without yet attempting to interpret or draw speculative conclusions from our data. This is what is known as a phenomenology of human existence.  Every investigation begins with observation. However, a mere scientific study of the human person is insufficient, as it gives only a partial view of human reality. Philosophers attempt to understand the ultimate causes of the human person, and to develop a total and complete picture of them. So in the Philosophy of the Human Person, we use observations regarding human beings, without yet attempting to interpret or draw speculative conclusions from our data. This is what is known as a phenomenology of human existence. We then scrutinize it to see if it gives us any clues to deeper truths about human beings.  This second phase, which follows the phenomenology of human existence, is referred to as the transcendental phase. In this phase, we seek the ultimate meaning of the data. The transcendental method searches for a final, conclusive, and exhaustive justification and explanation for all human behavior, activities, manifestations, cultural products, etc. It is also hermeneutical in nature, because we interpret all of the significant data that phenomenology provides.  A phenomenological survey of human existence and subseq uent transcendental reflections reveal some important information about the human person. ✓ Self-consciousness: Animals possess consciousness, but only humans have the capacity for reflection, or self-consciousness. ✓ Abstract intelligence: Animals possess a high degree of instinct and some even possess a high degree of intelligence, but humans alone possess abstract intelligence or rationality. ✓ Language: Animals communicate with one another, but very limited. They cannot communicate ideas or information pertaining to the past or future. Humans alone seem capable of this because of their capacity for abstraction. ✓ Contemplation: Animals act based on needs, drives, and instincts, Animals are unable to rise above them and look at them in a disinterested way. Human beings alone seem capable of contemplating nature. They are the only aesthetic animals. ✓ Objectification: Animals cannot objectify. To know an object as an object is to know it somehow as not-I, and this would call for self- consciousness. Humans, instead, because of self-consciousness, are also capable of objectifying their world. ✓ Culture: Out ability to objectify enables us to name things, to speak about them, and to engage in cultural pursuits. We are the only beings that can carry on from where the previous generation left off. ✓ Volitional freedom: Humans alone choose self-consciously and willfully. In short, they alone possess volitional freedom. ✓ Sociality: We participation in the world as a human. We are all social animals. ✓ Hermeneutical nature: Animals exhibitss the same behavioral patterns. It is not so with human beings. Every human being is a product of a particular era and culture. The way in which they relate to the world around them is influenced by historical, cultural, and social factors. Humans are, in short, hermeneutical animals. Questions? Human Person as an Embodied Spirit  Session Objectives By the end of the session, the participants will be able to: 1. Recognize one’s limitations and possibilities; 2. Evaluate one’s limitations and the possibilities for their transcendence; 3. Recognize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence; and 4. Distinguish the limitations and possibilities for transcendencen  INTRODUCTION ▪ The concept or idea that the human is an embodied spirit is one of the central topics in the discussion of the philosophy of the human person. ▪ It focuses on both the physical and spiritual aspects of the human being.  Introduction - What does it mean to be human? - We are not merely physical beings, composed of flesh, blood, and bones. - We are also beings of thought, emotion, and spirit. We possess the capacity to reason, to love, to create, and to transcend the limitations of our physical existence. ▪ This duality (the union of the physical and the spiritual) is what we call embodiment. ▪ Our bodies serve as vessels for our consciousness, our minds, our very selves. They enable us to interact with the world around us, to experience the fullness of life, and to express our unique individuality. ▪ Yet, our bodies are not without limitations. They are subject to the laws of physics, susceptible to disease and decay. They are finite, bound by time and mortality. This physicality reminds us of our human frailty, of our vulnerability to the forces of nature and the passage of time. ▪ Within these limitations lies a remarkable potential – the potential for transcendence. ▪ Our spirits, unconstrained by the physical realm, can soar beyond the limitations of our bodies. ▪ We can tap into our creativity, our intellect, and our capacity for love, reaching for higher truths and deeper meanings. ▪ This transcendence is not merely a flight of fancy or a wishful escape from reality. It is a fundamental aspect of our human nature, a testament to our ability to rise above our limitations and strive for something greater.  Human Person as an Embodied Spirit ▪ What do we mean when we say “embodied spirit”? ▪ The term “embodied spirit” immediately conjures up images of being materialized or incarnated. ▪ As a result, “embodied spirit”refers to a spirit who has become incarnated (Ocay, 2020). ▪ He claims that the human person as a embodied spirit does not necessarily imply the spirit’s incarnation or materialization as an immaterial entity. ▪ The inseparable union of body and soul is referred to as embodiment of the spirit in the Christian context.  Human Person as an Embodied Spirit ▪ As a result, when we speak of “embodied spirit,” we mean the inseparable union of body and soul. ▪ That is, the body is not distinct from the soul, and the soul is not distinct from the body. ▪ It means that the human being is the point of convergence or the nexus for material and spiritual entities, i.e. the body and soul.  Embodied Spirit 1. Inseparable Union of Body and Soul: - At its core, "embodied spirit" encapsulates the idea of the inseparable union of the body and soul. - It rejects any notion of dualism that posits a stark division between the physical and the spiritual. - The human being is conceived as a nexus, a point of convergence where material and spiritual entities coalesce.  Embodied Spirit 2.Rejecting Dualism: - Contrary to dualistic perspectives, which assert a fundamental opposition between the body and soul, the concept of "embodied spirit" emphasizes their essential unity. - This means that the body is not distinct from the soul, and vice versa. The rejection of dualism invites us to view ourselves as holistic entities, acknowledging that our physical and spiritual aspects are intricately interwoven.  Embodied Spirit 3.Convergence of Material and Spiritual Realms: - The human person, as an embodied spirit, becomes the meeting point of material and spiritual realms. - It signifies a harmonious integration of the tangible, observable aspects of our existence with the intangible, transcendent dimensions of our being. - This convergence challenges us to explore the rich interplay between our corporeal experiences and the depths of our innermost selves.  Embodied Spirit 4.Christian Context: - Within the Christian context, the term takes on additional layers of meaning. - The embodiment of the spirit, as mentioned by Ocay (2020), reflects a theological understanding of the unity of body and soul. - This perspective carries implications for notions of resurrection, the afterlife, and the significance of the human person in a religious framework. ▪ As a result, when we speak of "embodied spirit," we mean the inseparable union of body and soul. ▪ That is, the body is not distinct from the soul, and the soul is not distinct from the body. ▪ It means that the human being is the point of convergence or the nexus for material and spiritual entities, i.e. the body and soul.  Plato’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ Plato argues that there is a divine principle which he calls the “LOGOS” (reason) ▪ The LOGOS for him is not a god but a PRINCIPLE that organizes the world from PREEXISTING MATTER. ▪ What is most distinctive about Plato’s philosophy is his THEORY OF FORMS. ▪ He thought that knowledge is an active process through which we organize and classify our perceptions.  Aspects of Forms ▪ 1. Logical ▪ Insists that there are universal forms that exists independently and individual things are x’s because they participate in the form of xness. ▪ Ex. Dogs are mammals because they participate in doginess — which transcends individual dogs  Aspects of Forms ▪ 2. Metaphysical ▪ Are forms ultimately REAL? Do they exist independently? ▪ For Plato, the Universal, eternal, immaterial, unchanging forms are more real than individuals. ▪ Individual material things are known by the senses, whereas forms are known by the intellect. And the forms have a real, independent existence—there is a world of forms.  Aspects of Forms ▪ 3. Epistemological ▪ knowledge is of forms while perceptions in this world lead only to belief or opinion. ▪ Ex. The knowledge based on forms in mathematics. ▪ The objects of mathematical reasoning are often not found in this world—and we can never see most of them—but they provide us with knowledge about the world.  Aspects of Forms ▪ 4. Moral ▪ The ideals of human conduct such as justice and equality are forms. ▪ Individuals and societies can participate in justice, liberty, or equality, but in this world, we never encounter the perfect forms. ▪ The most IMPORTANT of all the forms is the form of the “GOOD.” ▪ Plato thought that by using reason we could come to know the good, and then we would do the good. ▪ Therefore knowledge of the good is sufficient for virtue, doing the good.  Theory of Human Nature Tripartite Structure of the Soul ▪ Plato was a dualist. ▪ The nature of the human person is both immaterial mind and material body (BODY and SOUL). ▪ The dichotomy implies that there is an inherent contradiction between the body and the soul. ▪ The body is material, therefore, it is changing and destructible while the soul is immaterial, therefore, it is unchanging and indestructible. ▪ Since the body is material while the soul is immaterial, it follows that the soul’s existence is independent of the body. ▪ Plato argues that the soul existed prior to the body.  Tripartite Structure of the Soul ▪ The soul (mind) is divided into 3 parts: reason; appetite (physical urges); and will (emotion, passion, spirit.) ▪ AKA ▪ 1. Rational ▪ 2. Spiritual ▪ 3. Appetitive ▪ Plato uses the image is of the charioteer (reason) who tries to control horses representing will and appetites. [Elsewhere he says that reason uses the will to control the appetites.  Tripartite Structure of the Soul ▪ For Plato, the rational soul is located in the head, the spiritual soul in the chest, and the appetitive in the abdomen. ▪ The spiritual and appetitive souls contribute to the motion and activity of the whole person. ▪ The rational soul’s function is to guide the spiritual and appetitive souls.  Tripartite Structure of the Soul ▪ The appetitive part of the soul drives the human person to experience thirst, hunger, and other physical wants. ▪ The spiritual soul drives the human person to experience abomination, anger, and other emotional feelings. ▪ It is the rational part of the soul that enables the human person to think, reflect, analyze, comprehend, draw conclusions, and the like. ▪ As we can see, the rational soul, which is the highest of all parts of the soul, guides the other two parts, namely, the appetitive and the spiritual.  Tripartite Structure of the Soul ▪ Ex. Think of a desperately thirsty man in the desert. He sees a pool of water and approaches it with all the eagerness that deprivation is able to create. But when he reaches the pool, he sees a sign: ‘Danger. Do not drink. Polluted.’ He experiences conflict within. His desire urges him to drink. But reason tells him that such signs usually indicate the truth, that polluted water will make him very ill or may kill him, and that if he drinks he will probably be worse off than he doesn’t. He decides not to drink. In this case, it is the rational part of the soul that opposes his desire. His reason guides him away from the water.  Tripartite Structure of the Soul “ Desire motivates, spirit animates, and reason guides. ” And for Plato, if reason can successfully guide desire and spirit, then the human person will attain a well-balanced personality.  Conclusion ▪ Plato contends that the soul exists prior to the body; hence, the soul is an entity distinct from the body. ▪ believes that the body and soul are separable ▪ the human person is just a soul using a body ▪ the soul is imprisoned in the body and that the soul survives the death of the body because it is immaterial, immutable, and indestructible. ▪ This means that when the person dies, the body decomposes while the soul leaves the body and goes back to the World of Forms.  Aristotle’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ Aristotle disagrees with Plato’s dualism. ▪ believes that there is no dichotomy between the person’s body and soul. ▪ The body and soul are in a state of unity. ▪ They are inseparable. ▪ we cannot talk about the soul apart from the body and vice versa.  Aristotle’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ What is his understanding of “embodied spirit”? ▪ First, we need to understand that the term soul is the English translation of the Greek word psyche. ▪ Aristotle argues that the general definition of the soul involves the concept of life. ▪ For Aristotle the soul is the principle of life.  Aristotle’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ As the principle of life, the soul causes the body to live. It is the soul that animates the body. ▪ If the soul is the animator of the body, the body acts as the matter to the soul. Therefore, he believes that the soul is the form to the body, while the body is the matter to the soul. ▪ For Aristotle, everything that exists is composed of matter and form, and matter and form are indeed inseparable. ▪ We cannot talk about any object if either of these entities is not present.  Aristotle’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ In the context of the human person, Aristotle believes that body and soul are inseparable. Body and soul, therefore, constitute the human person as a whole. ▪ Because for Aristotle anything that has life has a soul, then it follows that plants and animals (in addition to humans) have souls. ▪ Thus, Aristotle distinguishes three levels of soul, namely, that of plants, that of animals, and that of humans.  Three Types of Soul ▪ 1. Vegetative ▪ Plants have souls because they possess the three basic requirements for something to be called a “living being” a. that is, the capacity to grow b. Reproduce c. feed itself  Three Types of Soul ▪ 2. Sensitive ▪ Sensitive souls also grow, reproduce, and feed themselves ▪ but unlike vegetative souls, sensitive souls are capable of sensation.  Three Types of Soul ▪ 3. Rational ▪ rational souls grow, reproduce, feed themselves, and feel; but unlike the sensitive souls, rational souls are capable of thinking. ▪ According to Aristotle, this highest level of soul is present only in humans.  Three Types of Soul ▪ Now, since humans possess all the characteristics of animals, that is, the capacity to grow, reproduce, feed itself, and feel, in addition to being rational, ▪ Aristotle concludes that the human person is just an animal that thinks. As Aristotle’s famous dictum on the human person goes, “Man is a rational animal.”  St. Augustine’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ St. Augustine believed that God created the world, and this includes the creation of the immortal soul. ▪ A human being is not only material but, most importantly, a soul embodied in a material substance. In other words, the soul is a 'self-sustaining' substance (Villaroya, et. al., 2020). ▪  St. Augustine’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ Augustine held a dualistic perspective on the human being. ▪ The body is made of matter and is prone to deterioration, change, and death. It serves as our tool for interacting with the physical environment, allowing us to act and feel things. ▪ The soul is immortal, immaterial, and unchanged. It is the core of the human being and the origin of our feelings, ideas, and aspirations on a spiritual level. The soul is not limited by the body; rather, it exists outside of it, with the capacity to reflect on the divine and seek out eternal truths.  St. Augustine’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ He, therefore, believed in the soul’s immortality, which can exist without the body. With the soul’s self-subsistence, it is the real person in man. It is the principle of life which is also what makes man authentic (Villaroya, et. al., 2020).  St. Augustine’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ The authentic person of man is the soul within him. The fact the human body moves means that it is animated by the soul to perform its functions. ▪ The human body and its senses outwardly express the activities of the human soul. Through our five senses, the intellect, as a special faculty, is enhanced, allowing human beings to understand and realize that they are more endowed than other animals (Villaroya, et. al., 2020).  St. Augustine’s Concept of the Human Person ▪ Augustine placed great emphasis on the soul's authority over the body. He held that in order to ensure that our actions are in line with reason and morality, the soul should direct and regulate the body's impulses and desires. ▪ He contends that leading a moral life requires the soul to have control over the body. ▪ Sin and corruption result from the soul giving in to the body's passions and cravings. ▪ On the other hand, when the soul is in charge, it directs us toward deeds of justice, compassion, and love. St.Thomas Aquinas  Concept of Body and Soul ▪ St. Thomas Aquinas argued that the soul is dependent on the body, in the same way as the body is dependent on the soul. ▪ The difference between him and Aristotle was that the latter only sees the body and soul as inseparable. ▪ For Aquinas, however, without the soul, the body will not have its form, and without the body, the soul will not have its required sense organs to gain knowledge (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012).  Concept of Body and Soul ▪ The body is material, composed of matter and form, and subject to change and decay. ▪ It is through which that we interact with the physical world, experiencing sensations and performing actions. ▪ In contrast, the soul, is immaterial, simple and indivisible, and immortal. ▪ It is the essence of the human person, the source of our thoughts, emotions, intellect, and free will. ▪ The soul is not confined to the body but rather is the form that gives the body its life, unity, and purpose.  Human Person as Substantial Union ▪ Aquinas rejected the idea of the soul simply inhabiting the body, as suggested by Plato's dualism. ▪ He proposed that the human person is a substantial union of body and soul, a single entity composed of two distinct substances. ▪ In this substantial union, the body and soul are not merely juxtaposed but rather mutually interdependent. ▪ The body provides the soul with the means to interact with the physical world and express its immaterial nature, ▪ while the soul animates the body, giving it life, purpose, and direction.  Human Person as Substantial Union ▪ He emphasized the soul's role as the principle of life and actuation for the body. ▪ He believed that the soul is not merely a passive recipient of sensations and experiences but rather an active principle that guides the body's growth, development, and functioning. ▪ The soul is the source of the body's vegetative, sensitive, and rational powers. It governs the body's growth, nourishment, and reproduction, enables it to perceive and respond to the environment, and empowers it to reason, think, and make judgments.  Human Person as Substantial Union ▪ While Aquinas recognized the soul's primacy in the human person, he did not diminish the significance of the body. ▪ He believed that the body is not merely a passive receptacle for the soul but rather an integral part of the human person, contributing to its unique identity and experiences. ▪ The body, through its senses, provides the soul with the raw material for knowledge and experience. It also serves as the instrument through which we express our thoughts, emotions, and actions, enabling us to interact with the world and other individuals.  The Human Body ▪ When we talk of the human body, it implies the idea of finitude. ▪ The body of a human being is a material thing. Anything that is material is subject to corruption or destruction. ▪ Being embodied means human beings have certain limitations. Because of his/her body, a person becomes constrained by time and space. Such bodily existence is oriented towards an impending death. ▪ (Babor, 2001).  Human Limitations ▪ 1.Physical Limitations ▪ a)Physiology: Our bodies are susceptible to illness, injury, and decay. We are limited by our physical strength, endurance, and sensory perception. ▪ b)Mortality: Our bodies are mortal, inevitably succumbing to death. ▪ 2.Cognitive Limitations: ▪ a)Information Processing: Our cognitive abilities, are not limitless. We face limitations in memory, attention, and problem-solving. ▪ b)Knowledge Gaps: Our understanding of the world is incomplete and ever-evolving. We are constantly grappling with uncertainty and the limits of our knowledge.  Human Limitations ▪ 3.Emotional Limitations: ▪ a)Vulnerability: Our emotional capacity makes us susceptible to feelings of pain, sadness, and loss. We face challenges in managing emotions and coping with difficult experiences. ▪ b)Bias and Preconceptions: Our emotions and experiences can cloud our judgment and lead to biases and prejudices.  Limitations and Possibilities ▪ As embodied spirits, our existence is inherently marked by limitations. Our bodies are finite and subject to the laws of nature, imposing constraints on our abilities and experiences. ▪ Let us take for example our physicality. Everything that we perceive in our bodies are called accidents: skin color, size, shape, height, weight, etc. But as we all know, these characteristics are subject to change, thus, considered as limitations. (Villaroya, et. al., 2020)  Limitations and Possibilities ▪ We do not, for example, have the natural ability to fly, nor do we have the ability to stay underwater for extended periods of time. We want to be creative and productive, but we also recognize that there is a limit to how much we can accomplish. ▪ We get hungry, we get sleepy, we get bored (especially in philo classes), we get sick and eventually we will all die. This implies that we have bodily limitations in terms of our abilities, capacities and strength (Rodriguez et al., 2018).  Limitations and Possibilities ▪ However, despite our human limitations, we are more than the sum of our bodily limitations. ▪ Humans possess extraordinary capabilities that allow us to transcend our physical and cognitive constraints such as creativity, productivity, and the ability to form deep, meaningful relationships. ▪ Our minds and spirits are endowed with the power to transcend the confines of our physicality.  Human Possibilities ▪ 1.Intellectual Potential: ▪ a)Creativity and Innovation: Humans have an innate capacity for creativity, imagination, and innovation. We can generate new ideas, solve complex problems, and produce works of art, science, and technology. ▪ b)Learning and Adaptation: Our brains are remarkably adaptable, allowing us to learn new skills, acquire knowledge, and adapt to changing circumstances.  Human Possibilities ▪ 2.Social and Emotional Potential: ▪ a)Empathy and Compassion: Our capacity for empathy and compassion allows us to connect with others, understand their feelings, and offer support. These qualities form the foundation of meaningful relationships and a just society. ▪ b)Cooperation and Collaboration: Humans are social beings, capable of cooperation and collaboration on a grand scale. We can achieve remarkable feats through collective effort and shared knowledge.  Human Possibilities ▪ 3.Spiritual and Ethical Potential: ▪ a)Moral Compass: Humans possess a sense of right and wrong, a moral compass that guides our actions and interactions with others. We strive for justice, fairness, and the well-being of all. ▪ b)Self-Transcendence: Our capacity for self-reflection and spiritual growth allows us to transcend our limitations and pursue meaning and purpose beyond our physical existence.  Transcendence ▪ As human beings we recognize and accept that we all have physical constraints. But, we also have the power to transcend. ▪ Our limitations can actually provide us the motivation and purpose to realize our potentials and possibilities. ▪ Being embodied, therefore, is not a hindrance to develop and advance. We can always improve the intangible limitations of this life.  Transcendence ▪ Human transcendence refers to our ability to go beyond our limitations, to reach for something greater than ourselves. ▪ Abella defines transcendence (2016), as the ability to push ourselves beyond our limits. ▪ It's an acknowledgment that our physical and mental faculties provide the means to surpass constraints. Transcendence is the very essence of realizing and harnessing the power of possibility. It is manifested in various aspects of human existence such as:  Transcendence 1.Intellectual Transcendence: The pursuit of knowledge, truth, and understanding, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world. 2.Creative Transcendence: The expression of our imagination, creativity, and artistry, giving rise to works of art, music, and literature that inspire and uplift. 3.Moral Transcendence: The striving for ethical behavior, justice, and compassion, seeking to create a better world for all. 4.Spiritual Transcendence: The exploration of our inner selves, the search for meaning and purpose, and the connection to something greater than ourselves.  Transcendence As embodied spirits, we are more than our body, although we accept the fact that we are limited, there is an aspect within as that can transcend our limits. For instance, when we enter into a relationship, we carry into that relationship our limitations, our weaknesses, our body. But why is it, that we look beyond the limitations of that person that we are having a relationship with? Every limitation and possibility of our bodies, minds, and spirits serve as lessons in empathy and compassion. Our shared human experience calls us to serve others, to go beyond our personal insensitivities and selfish tendencies. Through our embodiment, we encounter diverse beings, each with their unique struggles and triumphs, urging us to extend understanding and support.  Transcendence As embodied spirits, we are more than our body, although we accept the fact that we are limited, there is an aspect within as that can transcend our limits. For instance, when we enter into a relationship, we carry into that relationship our limitations, our weaknesses, our body. But why is it, that we look beyond the limitations of that person that we are having a relationship with? Every limitation and possibility of our bodies, minds, and spirits serve as lessons in empathy and compassion. Our shared human experience calls us to serve others, to go beyond our personal insensitivities and selfish tendencies. Through our embodiment, we encounter diverse beings, each with their unique struggles and triumphs, urging us to extend understanding and support.  Transcendence Rodriguez et al. (2018) urge us not to view our perceived finiteness as a hindrance but rather as a bearer of possibilities. This perspective encourages us to recognize that within our limitations lies the potential for growth, resilience, and the unfolding of untapped capabilities. As we journey through this exploration of limitations, possibilities, and transcendence, let us embrace the complexity of our existence. Our bodies ground us, but our minds and spirits propel us beyond the ordinary. In recognizing our shared humanity, we find the strength to serve others, transcend personal limitations, and discover the profound possibilities that lie within the very core of our being. MADAMO GID NA SALAMAT! Doing Philosophy  Session Objectives By the end of the session, the learners will 1. Identify and discuss the methods and tools in philosophy; 2. Distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view; 3. Recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection; and 4. Doing a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective ▪ What methods and tools do Philosophers use in the conduct of their study? Philosophical inquiry takes various forms and employs methods depending on the topic, perspective, or school of philosophy. ▪ Steps of philosophers in their philosophical studies: ✓ Systematic doubt – It is a method that implies the suspension of belief about absolutely everything. ✓ According to Descartes, the only thing that he cannot doubt is that, he is doubting, he is thinking, and therefore must exists. “Cogito ergo sum” which means I think, therefore I am (Klempner, 2012). ✓ Argument – engage in discussion and debate on their ideas. Various perspectives are taken into consideration and examined. ✓ An argument is constitutive of two or more claims, one of which is a conclusion. The conclusion is the claim the arguments intends to give a reason for believing. ✓ While the other claims are what we call the premises. The premises are taken together supports the reason for believing its conclusion (Payne, 2015). ✓ Ex. All A are B. All A are C. Therefore all B are C; ✓ Ex. All sunflowers are flowers (major premise). This is a sunflower (minor premise). Therefore, I am holding a flower. ✓ Socratic Method – The Socratic method, which is also known as the elenchus or elenctic method is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, which is based on asking and answering questions in order to encourage critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presuppositions. ✓ This dialectical method, involves a discussion in which the defense of one point of view is questioned; one participant may lead another to contradict themselves in some way, thus weakening the defender’s stance. (http://ear- citizen.eu/2019/05/01/socrates/). ✓ Axiom - an established rule or principle or self-evident truth (Merriam-Webster, 2020). ✓ It is a statement or proposition that needs no proof because its truth is obvious, or one that is accepted as true without proof. ✓ Ex. No one gives, what he does not have; a + b = b + a ✓ Occam’s Razor – It is a problem-solving device which is employed in analyzing possible explanations regarding a phenomenon. ✓ This principle states that among possible explanations, the one which has the least assumptions is the most acceptable (Abella, 2016).  Perspective ▪ Everyone sees and interprets the world in their own unique way. ▪ There are a number of factors that influence how we perceive this phenomenon and organize our beliefs and ideas. ▪ family, ▪ education, ▪ social environment ▪ upbringing, to name a few factors that influence how we perceive and interact with the world. In general, there are two ways we "look at things": partial point of view and holistic perspective.  Perspective ▪ In general, there are two ways we "look at things": ▪ partial point of view ▪ holistic perspective ▪ A point of view is defined as a stance or point of view from which something is considered or evaluated (Merriam- Webster, 2020) ▪ It focuses on the specifics of only one aspect of the whole. ▪ For example, if I ask you what the first thing you notice when you see your crush, what is it? Some might say the eyes, lips, or hair, while others might point out the skin, ears, or anything else that catches their eye. ▪ This is referred to as partial thinking.  Perspective ▪ Because analytic thinkers believe that events are the result of individuals and their attributes, partial thinking is an important component of analytic thinking. ▪ However, the problem with this way of thinking is that it has a narrow focus and overlooks the role that the part plays in the overall operation. ▪ A holistic way of thinking is defined as relating to or concerned with wholes or complete systems rather than analyzing, treating, or dissecting into parts (Merriam-Webster, 2020). ▪ It's like taking a step back and looking at things from a macro perspective. ▪ All things are viewed as influencing the whole, and all of its parts are interconnected, so when considering them, you must also ▪ Holistic thinking entails looking at or considering the entire picture, also known as the "big picture." ▪ focuses on the operation of the various elements or parts that comprise the larger whole ▪ examines how these different elements interact, interrelate, and interconnect with one another in order to create a bigger whole, as well as how this bigger whole governs the various elements that comprise it. ▪ In contrast to the partial point of view, which sees an event as it is. It is only externally focused on specific aspects of external reality.  Perspective ▪ Partial thinking is also useful from a philosophical standpoint, but only to a certain extent. ▪ What is expected of us is a holistic approach to addressing issues and concerns related to human experience. ▪ When faced with a problem, people have a tendency to analyze it and break it down into pieces, but in doing so, we lose sight of what is truly important. Because we can see life in its entirety, a holistic perspective produces a more comprehensive and integrated outlook on life.  Reflection ▪ Reflection is concerned with looking at and thinking about our experiences, actions, feelings, and responses, and then interpreting or analyzing them in order to learn from them (Atkins and Murphy, 1994). ▪ Reflection is an important process in philosophy because it leads to the development of individual skills that are useful in everyday life. ▪ According to Marcel, reflection is the act of devoting time to contemplating the meaning and purpose of one's life.  Reflection ▪ Two kinds of philosophical reflection: ▪ primary reflection ▪ secondary reflection. ▪ Primary reflection investigates its object through abstraction, dissecting and breaking it down into its constituent parts. It is concerned with definitions, essences, and problem-solving techniques. ▪ Secondary reflection, on the other hand, is synthetic and seeks to unite rather than divide (Treanor & Sweetman, 2016).  Reflection ▪ Primary reflection tends to dissolve the unity of experience of the object being reflected on ▪ Secondary reflection attempts to recover the unity of experience. ▪ Primary reflection is associated with a partial point of view because it is fragmented and compartmentalized. It does not make sense in context. ▪ Secondary reflection, on the other hand, re-creates the unity of the original experience by collecting what primary reflection has dissected. It allows us to think in a more holistic manner. ▪ "big picture" ▪ As a philosophical tool then, reflection allows us to see connections and relations of people, places, events, actions and its effects. It not only deepens our self-understanding but more importantly our role and place in this world.  Reflection ▪ Reflection is a critical philosophical process for ensuring that our choices, decisions, and actions are well thought out and take into account the implications and consequences. ▪ It enables us to determine whether our decisions and actions are logical or illogical. ▪ Doing philosophy, when confronted with issues and concerns, enables a person to think critically and analytically. I ▪ improves our problem-solving abilities and aids us in making decisions ▪ The ability to analyze a problem or dilemma, identify the key elements, and generate alternative solutions is a valuable skill that philosophy provides. ▪ When “doing philosophy,” it is critical to maintain a holistic perspective. Of course, the ultimate goal of all of these is to achieve wisdom. MADAMO GID NGA SALAMAT!  INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON Module 4: Human Person as an Embodied Spirit Welcome to the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person module on the Human Person as an Embodied Spirit. This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner. Reminders: 1. You are expected to perform all activities or task that is being ask of you in the module. 2. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises. Do not forget to answer before moving on to the other activities included in the module. Keep a copy of your activity sheets including the answers. 3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task. 4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks. If you encounter some difficulties in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult the faculty-in-charge. Always bear in mind that you are not alone. I hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. In this module, the human person as an embodied spirit will be studied. You will unlock new knowledge as you take the journey in this module. This module contains one lesson with the following topics: embodied spirit, limitations and possibilities, and transcendence. After going through this module, you are expected to: 1. Recognize one’s limitations and possibilities; 2. Evaluate one’s limitations and the possibilities for their transcendence; 3. Recognize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities for transcendence; and 4. Distinguish the limitations and possibilities for transcendence Introduction The concept or idea that the human is an embodied spirit is one of the central topics in the discussion of the philosophy of the human person. This concept, which lies at the heart of philosophical inquiry, delves into the nature of our existence, examining the intricate relationship between our physical bodies and the intangible, immaterial essence that defines our humanity. As we embark on this intellectual journey, let us first consider the question: What does it mean to be human? We are not merely physical beings, composed of flesh, blood, and bones. We are also beings of thought, emotion, and spirit. We possess the capacity to reason, to love, to create, and to transcend the limitations of our physical existence. This duality, this union of the physical and the spiritual, is what we call embodiment. Our bodies serve as vessels for our consciousness, our minds, our very selves. They enable us to interact with the world around us, to experience the fullness of life, and to express our unique individuality. Yet, our bodies are not without limitations. They are subject to the laws of physics, susceptible to disease and decay. They are finite, bound by time and mortality. This physicality reminds us of our human frailty, of our vulnerability to the forces of nature and the passage of time. However, within these limitations lies a remarkable potential – the potential for transcendence. Our spirits, unconstrained by the physical realm, can soar beyond the limitations of our bodies. We can tap into our creativity, our intellect, and our capacity for love, reaching for higher truths and deeper meanings. This transcendence is not merely a flight of fancy or a wishful escape from reality. It is a fundamental aspect of our human nature, a testament to our ability to rise above our limitations and strive for something greater. Embodied Spirit As we examine the notion of "embodied spirit," we encounter the profound union of the physical and the metaphysical, the tangible and the transcendent. of the tangible and the transcendent, the metaphysical and the physical. This word suggests a synthesis of the spiritual and material realm and instantly conjures images of materialization and incarnation. Let's examine this idea in more detail to have a deeper grasp. The term “embodied spirit” immediately conjures up images of being materialized or incarnated. As a result, "embodied spirit" refers to a spirit who has become incarnated (Ocay, 2020). He claims that the human person as a "embodied spirit" does not necessarily imply the spirit's incarnation or materialization as an immaterial entity. The inseparable union of body and soul is referred to as embodiment of the spirit in the Christian context. So, what does it truly mean when we say "embodied spirit"? 1. Inseparable Union of Body and Soul: At its core, "embodied spirit" encapsulates the idea of the inseparable union of the body and soul. It rejects any notion of dualism that posits a stark division between the physical and the spiritual. The human being is conceived as a nexus, a point of convergence where material and spiritual entities coalesce. 2. Rejecting Dualism: Contrary to dualistic perspectives, which assert a fundamental opposition between the body and soul, the concept of "embodied spirit" emphasizes their essential unity. This means that the body is not distinct from the soul, and vice versa. The rejection of dualism invites us to view ourselves as holistic entities, acknowledging that our physical and spiritual aspects are intricately interwoven. 3. Convergence of Material and Spiritual Realms: The human person, as an embodied spirit, becomes the meeting point of material and spiritual realms. It signifies a harmonious integration of the tangible, observable aspects of our existence with the intangible, transcendent dimensions of our being. This convergence challenges us to explore the rich interplay between our corporeal experiences and the depths of our innermost selves. 4. Christian Context: Within the Christian context, the term takes on additional layers of meaning. The embodiment of the spirit, as mentioned by Ocay (2020), reflects a theological understanding of the unity of body and soul. This perspective carries implications for notions of resurrection, the afterlife, and the significance of the human person in a religious framework. As a result, when we speak of "embodied spirit," we mean the inseparable union of body and soul. That is, the body is not distinct from the soul, and the soul is not distinct from the body. It means that the human being is the point of convergence or the nexus for material and spiritual entities, i.e. the body and soul. Plato’s Concept of the Human Person Plato, in his dualistic worldview, posits that the human being is endowed with both a material and an immaterial body. This dualism creates a fundamental dichotomy between the body and the soul. According to Ocay (2020), the body is material, subject to mutability and destruction, while the soul is immaterial, unchanging, and indestructible. The implication of this dualism is profound. Plato suggests that the existence of the body is contingent upon the existence of the soul. However, the soul, being immaterial, remains independent of the body, which is material, mutable, and ultimately destructible. According to Bernados (2017), the soul is the authentic part, while the body is just the prison cell. Hence, the body's existence is dependent on the soul, while the soul is independent of the body. This foundational separation lays the groundwork for understanding Plato's unique perspective on the human person. Plato argues that there is a divine principle which he calls the “LOGOS” (reason). The LOGOS for him is not a god but a PRINCIPLE that organizes the world from PREEXISTING MATTER. What is most distinctive about Plato’s philosophy is his THEORY OF FORMS. He thought that knowledge is an active process through which we organize and classify our perceptions. What are the different aspects of forms? 1. Logical - He insists that there are universal forms that exists independently and individual things are x’s because they participate in the form of xness. Ex. Dogs are mammals because they participate in doginess — which transcends individual dogs 2. Metaphysical - Are forms ultimately REAL? Do they exist independently? For Plato, the Universal, eternal, immaterial, unchanging forms are more real than individuals. Individual material things are known by the senses, whereas forms are known by the intellect. And the forms have a real, independent existence—there is a world of forms. 3. Epistemological - Knowledge is of forms while perceptions in this world lead only to belief or opinion. The objects of mathematical reasoning are often not found in this world—and we can never see most of them—but they provide us with knowledge about the world. Ex. The knowledge based on forms in mathematics. 4. Moral - The ideals of human conduct such as justice and equality are forms. Individuals and societies can participate in justice, liberty, or equality, but in this world, we never encounter the perfect forms. The most IMPORTANT of all the forms is the form of the “GOOD.” Plato thought that by using reason we could come to know the good, and then we would do the good. Therefore knowledge of the good is sufficient for virtue, doing the good. Tripartite Structure of the Soul As we have discussed earlier, Plato was a dualist. For him, the nature of the human person is both immaterial mind and material body (BODY and SOUL). The dichotomy implies that there is an inherent contradiction between the body and the soul. The body is material, therefore, it is changing and destructible while the soul is immaterial, therefore, it is unchanging and indestructible. Since the body is material while the soul is immaterial, it follows that the soul’s existence is independent of the body. Plato argues that the soul existed prior to the body. With the argument made by Plato, we can conclude that the HUMAN PERSON IS JUST A SOUL USING A BODY. The soul (mind) is divided into 3 parts: reason; appetite (physical urges); and will (emotion, passion, spirit.) 1. Rational 2. Spiritual 3. Appetitive Plato employs the image of the charioteer (reason) commanding the horses, which represent the will and appetites (Messerly, 2014). According to him, the rational soul is in the head, the spiritual soul is in the chest, and the appetitive soul is in the abdomen. The spiritual and appetitive souls contribute to the movement and activity of the entire person, whereas the rational soul's function is to guide the spiritual and appetitive souls (Ocay, 2020). Plato believed that the appetitive part of the soul compelled humans to experience thirst, hunger, and other physical desires, whereas the spiritual soul compelled humans to experience passion, anger, and other emotional feelings. Finally, the rational part of the soul allows the human being to think, reflect, analyze, comprehend, draw conclusions, and so on. Plato clearly regards the rational soul, which is the highest of all parts of the soul, as a guide of the appetitive and spiritual (Ocay, 2020). Plato, as previously stated, believes that the soul exists prior to the body, and thus the soul is distinct from the body. However, according to the concept of "embodied spirit," the soul and body are inseparable. Plato, on the other hand, has a different point of view. He considers the body and soul to be separate entities. For him, a human being is simply a soul inhabiting a body, and the soul, he believes, is imprisoned within the body. As a result, when a person dies, the body decomposes (due to its material, changing, and destructible nature), whereas the soul departs from the body and returns to the World of Forms. It is worth noting that there are two kinds of worlds in Plato's form doctrine: the World of Forms and the World of Matter. And, according to Plato, everything originates in the World of Forms, and everything that exists (in the World of Matter) will perish and return to the World of Forms. When a human dies, his or her body decomposes and the soul returns to the World of Forms. Aristotle’s Concept of the Human Person Aristotle challenged the dualistic views of his predecessor, Plato. Aristotle's perspective on the human person offers a compelling alternative, emphasizing the inseparable connection between body and soul. He rejected the notion that the soul and body can exist independently of each other. According to Messerly (2014), Aristotle contends that the soul and body are inextricably linked — an inseparable unity that forms the core of his understanding of the human person. Unlike Plato, who envisioned the soul as distinct and even imprisoned within the body, Aristotle's holistic perspective suggests that the essence of a person is embedded and intertwined with their physical being. To speak of the soul, in Aristotle's view, is to inevitably speak of the body. His understanding of the soul is foundational to comprehending his concept of the "embodied spirit." The English word "soul" finds its roots in the Greek word "psyche." According to Ocay (2020), Aristotle's general definition of the soul incorporates the concept of life, positioning the soul as the principle of life itself. The soul, for Aristotle, is not an independent, ethereal entity. Instead, it is the animating force, the vital principle that brings life to the body. In this symbiotic relationship, the body serves as the matter to the soul. It is the canvas upon which the soul's specific structure or pattern is expressed, defining how the body exists and functions (Messerly, 2014). Aristotle's metaphysical framework, rooted in the concept of matter and form, asserts that everything that exists is composed of these inseparable elements. In the context of the human person, he extends this principle to affirm the inseparability of body and soul. The soul, as the form, and the body, as the matter, are intricately woven together. According to Ocay (2020), they constitute the essential components that form the entirety of the human person. In Aristotle's vision, the human person is not a soul imprisoned within a body but an integrated unity, where the body and soul mutually define and shape each other. Aristotle's concept of the "embodied spirit" emerges from this interconnected understanding of body and soul. The soul, as the animating force, imparts life and purpose to the body. The union of body and soul, rather than being a temporary coexistence, forms a harmonious and enduring relationship. In contrast to Plato's vision of the soul's departure to the World of Forms upon death, Aristotle's perspective implies a more nuanced continuity. The soul's essence, intertwined with the body, suggests a unity that persists beyond physical demise. The Three Types of Soul Aristotle argues that the soul is the vital principle that animates living beings. He distinguishes three types of soul, each associated with specific functions and capabilities within a living organism. 1. Nutritive Soul (Vegetative Soul) The nutritive soul, also known as the vegetative soul, is the most basic and fundamental level of the soul. It is responsible for the basic functions of life, such as growth, nourishment, and reproduction. This soul is present in all living things, from plants to animals to humans. The nutritive soul operates on a subconscious level, working automatically to maintain the organism's existence. It regulates the body's processes, such as digestion, circulation, and respiration, ensuring that the organism has the energy and resources it needs to survive. 2. Sensitive Soul The sensitive soul, also known as the sentient soul, builds upon the nutritive soul and adds the ability to perceive and respond to the environment. It is present in animals and humans and allows them to experience the world through their senses. The sensitive soul enables organisms to sense their surroundings through sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. This sensory information provides them with the awareness they need to navigate their environment, find food, avoid danger, and reproduce. 3. Rational Soul The rational soul is the highest and most distinctive level of the soul, unique to humans. It is responsible for our ability to reason, think, and make judgments. The rational soul allows us to transcend the limitations of our physical bodies and explore the realm of ideas, knowledge, and morality. The rational soul enables us to understand abstract concepts, solve problems, engage in creative thought, and make informed decisions. It also allows us to develop a sense of self, understand our place in the world, and contemplate our existence. Hierarchy of Souls He believed that the three types of souls exist in a hierarchical relationship. The nutritive soul is the foundation upon which the sensitive soul is built, and the sensitive soul is the foundation upon which the rational soul is built. Each soul level builds upon the previous one, adding new capabilities and complexities to the organism's existence. The nutritive soul provides the basic life functions, the sensitive soul adds sensory experience, and the rational soul elevates human beings to a level of intellectual and moral understanding. Now, since humans possess all the characteristics of animals, that is, the capacity to grow, reproduce, feed itself, and feel, in addition to being rational, Aristotle concludes that the human person is just an animal that thinks. As Aristotle’s famous dictum on the human person goes, “Man is a rational animal.” Aristotle's concept of the three types of souls offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the various levels of life and the unique nature of human existence. It highlights the interconnectedness of the physical and spiritual dimensions of life, emphasizing the role of the soul in guiding and shaping the organism's development and functioning. St. Augustine’s Concept of the Body and the Soul St. Augustine believed that God created the world, and this includes the creation of the immortal soul. A human being is not only material but, most importantly, a soul embodied in a material substance. In other words, the soul is a 'self-sustaining' substance (Villaroya, et. al., 2020). Similar to Plato, Augustine held a dualistic perspective on the human being, acknowledging the unique characteristics of the body and the soul. He held that the body is made of matter and is prone to deterioration, change, and death. It serves as our tool for interacting with the physical environment, allowing us to act and feel things. On the other hand, the soul is immortal, immaterial, and unchanged. It is the core of the human being and the origin of our feelings, ideas, and aspirations on a spiritual level. The soul is not limited by the body; rather, it exists outside of it, with the capacity to reflect on the divine and seek out eternal truths. He, therefore, believed in the soul’s immortality, which can exist without the body. With the soul’s self-subsistence, it is the real person in man. It is the principle of life which is also what makes man authentic (Villaroya, et. al., 2020). The authentic person of man is the soul within him. The fact the human body moves means that it is animated by the soul to perform its functions. The human body and its senses outwardly express the activities of the human soul. Through our five senses, the intellect, as a special faculty, is enhanced, allowing human beings to understand and realize that they are more endowed than other animals (Villaroya, et. al., 2020). Augustine placed great emphasis on the soul's authority over the body. He held that in order to ensure that our actions are in line with reason and morality, the soul should direct and regulate the body's impulses and desires. He contends that leading a moral life requires the soul to have control over the body. Sin and corruption result from the soul giving in to the body's passions and cravings. On the other hand, when the soul is in charge, it directs us toward deeds of justice, compassion, and love. St. Thomas Aquinas’ Concept of the Body and the Soul St. Thomas Aquinas argued that the soul is dependent on the body, in the same way as the body is dependent on the soul. The difference between him and Aristotle was that the latter only sees the body and soul as inseparable. For Aquinas, however, without the soul, the body will not have its form, and without the body, the soul will not have its required sense organs to gain knowledge (Stumpf & Fieser, 2012). The body is material, composed of matter and form, and subject to change and decay. It is through which that we interact with the physical world, experiencing sensations and performing actions. In contrast, the soul, is immaterial, simple and indivisible, and immortal. It is the essence of the human person, the source of our thoughts, emotions, intellect, and free will. The soul is not confined to the body but rather is the form that gives the body its life, unity, and purpose. The Human Person as a Substantial Union Aquinas rejected the idea of the soul simply inhabiting the body, as suggested by Plato's dualism. Instead, he proposed that the human person is a substantial union of body and soul, a single entity composed of two distinct substances. In this substantial union, the body and soul are not merely juxtaposed but rather mutually interdependent. The body provides the soul with the means to interact with the physical world and express its immaterial nature, while the soul animates the body, giving it life, purpose, and direction. He emphasized the soul's role as the principle of life and actuation for the body. He believed that the soul is not merely a passive recipient of sensations and experiences but rather an active principle that guides the body's growth, development, and functioning. The soul, according to Aquinas, is the source of the body's vegetative, sensitive, and rational powers. It governs the body's growth, nourishment, and reproduction, enables it to perceive and respond to the environment, and empowers it to reason, think, and make judgments. While Aquinas recognized the soul's primacy in the human person, he did not diminish the significance of the body. He believed that the body is not merely a passive receptacle for the soul but rather an integral part of the human person, contributing to its unique identity and experiences. The body, through its senses, provides the soul with the raw material for knowledge and experience. It also serves as the instrument through which we express our thoughts, emotions, and actions, enabling us to interact with the world and other individuals. Limitations and Possibilities If we follow Aristotle’s logic that we are embodied spirits or the unity of the body and soul. There is an aspect within us that is limited and at the same time transcendent. As embodied spirits, our existence is inherently marked by limitations. Our bodies are finite and subject to the laws of nature, imposing constraints on our abilities and experiences. Let us take for example our physicality. Everything that we perceive in our bodies are called accidents: skin color, size, shape, height, weight, etc. But as we all know, these characteristics are subject to change, thus, considered as limitations. (Villaroya, et. al., 2020) Human Limitations 1. Physical Limitations a) Physiology: Our bodies are susceptible to illness, injury, and decay. We are limited by our physical strength, endurance, and sensory perception.  b) Mortality: Our bodies are mortal, inevitably succumbing to death. 2. Cognitive Limitations: a) Information Processing: Our cognitive abilities, are not limitless. We face limitations in memory, attention, and problem-solving. b) Knowledge Gaps: Our understanding of the world is incomplete and ever-evolving. We are constantly grappling with uncertainty and the limits of our knowledge. 3. Emotional Limitations: a) Vulnerability: Our emotional capacity makes us susceptible to feelings of pain, sadness, and loss. We face challenges in managing emotions and coping with difficult experiences. b) Bias and Preconceptions: Our emotions and experiences can cloud our judgment and lead to biases and prejudices. We do not, for example, have the natural ability to fly, nor do we have the ability to stay underwater for extended periods of time. We want to be creative and productive, but we also recognize that there is a limit to how much we can accomplish. We get hungry, we get sleepy, we get bored (especially in philo classes), we get sick and eventually we will all die. This implies that we have bodily limitations in terms of our abilities, capacities and strength (Rodriguez et al., 2018). When I was younger, I wanted to become a basketball player and play in the NBA. I wanted to fly like Mike, shoot like Bird and pass like Magic. But later on, I realized that I cannot fly like Mike, shoot like Bird and pass like Magic. “The spirit was willing, but the flesh is weak.” However, despite our human limitations, we are more than the sum of our bodily limitations. Humans possess extraordinary capabilities that allow us to transcend our physical and cognitive constraints such as creativity, productivity, and the ability to form deep, meaningful relationships. Our minds and spirits are endowed with the power to transcend the confines of our physicality. Human Possibilities 1. Intellectual Potential: a) Creativity and Innovation: Humans have an innate capacity for creativity, imagination, and innovation. We can generate new ideas, solve complex problems, and produce works of art, science, and technology. b) Learning and Adaptation: Our brains are remarkably adaptable, allowing us to learn new skills, acquire knowledge, and adapt to changing circumstances. 2. Social and Emotional Potential:  a) Empathy and Compassion: Our capacity for empathy and compassion allows us to connect with others, understand their feelings, and offer support. These qualities form the foundation of meaningful relationships and a just society. b) Cooperation and Collaboration: Humans are social beings, capable of cooperation and collaboration on a grand scale. We can achieve remarkable feats through collective effort and shared knowledge. 3. Spiritual and Ethical Potential: a) Moral Compass: Humans possess a sense of right and wrong, a moral compass that guides our actions and interactions with others. We strive for justice, fairness, and the well-being of all. b) Self-Transcendence: Our capacity for self-reflection and spiritual growth allows us to transcend our limitations and pursue meaning and purpose beyond our physical existence. The Transcendence of the Human Person Human transcendence refers to our ability to go beyond our limitations, to reach for something greater than ourselves. Abella defines transcendence (2016), as the ability to push ourselves beyond our limits. It's an acknowledgment that our physical and mental faculties provide the means to surpass constraints. Transcendence is the very essence of realizing and harnessing the power of possibility. It is manifested in various aspects of human existence such as: 1. Intellectual Transcendence: The pursuit of knowledge, truth, and understanding, pushing the boundaries of our understanding of the world. 2. Creative Transcendence: The expression of our imagination, creativity, and artistry, giving rise to works of art, music, and literature that inspire and uplift. 3. Moral Transcendence: The striving for ethical behavior, justice, and compassion, seeking to create a better world for all. 4. Spiritual Transcendence: The exploration of our inner selves, the search for meaning and purpose, and the connection to something greater than ourselves. As embodied spirits, we are more than our body, although we accept the fact that we are limited, there is an aspect within as that can transcend our limits. For instance, when we enter into a relationship, we carry into that relationship our limitations, our weaknesses, our body. But why is it, that we look beyond the limitations of that person that we are having a relationship with? “Ngaa capable kita nga mag love sg tawo nga bulag, nga bungol, or kung law-ay man ina sya?” It is because wala na kita galantaw sa ila nga “body” and we are able to transcend that, because we are loving the totality of the person and not simply the body. So makita na naton nga ang aton ginapalangga, kind gali, thoughtful gali, kag the person has a story to tell and we are drawn to the story that the person is telling because we love her/him and we love spending time with that person. It simply shows that despite that fact that we are embodied, we also are capable of thinking, of feeling, of having emotions, be creative and invent things and most of all, we have the capacity and will to love and be love as the same time. Every limitation and possibility of our bodies, minds, and spirits serve as lessons in empathy and compassion. Our shared human experience calls us to serve others, to go beyond our personal insensitivities and selfish tendencies. Through our embodiment, we encounter diverse beings, each with their unique struggles and triumphs, urging us to extend understanding and support. Rodriguez et al. (2018) urge us not to view our perceived finiteness as a hindrance but rather as a bearer of possibilities. This perspective encourages us to recognize that within our limitations lies the potential for growth, resilience, and the unfolding of untapped capabilities. Human transcendence is not a destination but an ongoing journey, a continuous process of growth, learning, and self-discovery. It is through this journey that we fulfill our potential as embodied spirits, embracing both our limitations and our possibilities. As we journey through this exploration of limitations, possibilities, and transcendence, let us embrace the complexity of our existence. Our bodies ground us, but our minds and spirits propel us beyond the ordinary. In recognizing our shared humanity, we find the strength to serve others, transcend personal limitations, and discover the profound possibilities that lie within the very core of our being. Summary ⚫ Embodied spirit it refers to the inseparable union of the body and the soul. ⚫ Plato believes that there is dichotomy between body and soul. ⚫ Aristotle believes that body and soul are inseparable. The body and the soul forms the human person as a whole. ⚫ There is an aspect in man/woman that is both limited and transcendent. ⚫ Every limitation and possibilities of our body teaches us how to be with others. REFERENCES BOOKS Abella, D. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City: C& E Publishing , Inc. Babor, E. R. (2001). The Human Person: Not Real, but Existing. C&E Publishing. Bernados, S. (2017). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing. Derecho, A., et al.,(2020).Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - Grade 12 Alternative Delivery Mode Quarter 1 - Module 3: The Human Person as Embodied Spirit. Department of Education - National Capital Region. Melchert, N. (1999). The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy - Aristotle (De Anima). Mountain View, California: Mayfield Publishing Company. Ramos, C. (2015). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. First Edition. Rex Bookstore. Quezon City. Rodriguez et. al., (2018). Doing Philosophy.Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press. Sioco, M. & Vinzons, I. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. First Edition. Vibal Group, Inc. Quezon City. Steph. (2018, December 1). Philo-notes: Learn Philosophy Online. Retrieved from https://philonotes.com: https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/12/01/the-human person-as-an-embodied-spirit/ Stumpf, S. E., & Fieser, J. (2012). Socrates to Sarte and Beyond: A History of Philosophy. Mc Graw-Hill Education. Valmores, C. (2020). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person - Grade 12 Alternative Delivery Mode Quarter 1 - Module 3: The Human Person as Embodied Spirit. Cagayan de Oro City: Department of Education - Region X - Northern Mindanao. Villaroya, A., Enaya, B., and Fernandez, E. (2020). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Davao City: ALETHEIA Printing and Publishing House. INTERNET SOURCES Messerly, J.(2014, October 17). Summary of Plato's Theory of Human Nature. Reason and Meaning. https://reasonandmeaning.com/2014/10/11/theories-of-human-nature-chapter-7-plato- part-1/. Messerly, J.(2014, October 17). Summary of Aristotle's Theory of Human Nature. Reason and Meaning. https://reasonandmeaning.com/2014/10/17/theories-of-human-nature-chapter-9-aristot le-part-1/. Ocay. (2020, September 14). The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit - PHILO-notes. https://philonotes.com/index.php/2018/12/01/the-human-person-as-an-embodied-spiri t/. Determining Truth  Session Objectives At the end of the session, the students will 1. Define the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge; 2. Discuss the philosophical bases of determining truth; 3. Identify and discuss the theories on knowledge and relate them to the problem of determining truth; 4. Describe how the theories on knowledge can be applied in actual situations 5. Discuss how knowledge of fallacies and bias can help determine truth 6. Determine false and untrue statements using the theories on knowledge  How do we use philosophy to figure out what is true? ▪ We are often exposed with a lot of information in our society today. ▪ How do we know that what they are telling us is true? ▪ Philosophy deals with the concept of truth. ▪ Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. ▪ Knowledge must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. ▪ What is truth? ▪ The first concept about truth is rooted in ancient Greek philosophy’s concept of knowledge as “justified, true belief.” ▪ Something is true because you believe that it is true, and there is justification for such a belief. ▪ How do we justify our belief? ▪ Perception ▪ Appeal to authority ▪ Use of reasoning  Theories on Truth 1. Correspondence theory ▪ The the truth or falsity of a statement is determined by how it relates to the world and whether it accurately describes (i.e., corresponds with) that world. ▪ Ex. A mammal is an animal which is warm-blooded. (True) Pigs can fly. (False) ▪ Manananggal Terrorizes Iloilo. ▪ Man Gives Birth to Twins.  The word "correspondence" comes from the Latin word "correspondentia," which is a combination of two Latin words: "cor," meaning "together," and "respondere," meaning "to answer" or "to respond." In Latin, "correspondentia" referred to the idea of things that go together or match. Correspondence theory claim that true beliefs and true statements correspond to the actual state of affairs. It attempts to posit a relationship between thoughts or statements on one hand, and things or facts on the other. Statement: "The cat is on the mat." Fact: The cat is physically located on the mat. If the cat is physically located on the mat, then the statement "The cat is on the mat" is true. If the cat is not physically located on the mat, then the statement is false. 2. Coherence theory ▪ a theory that states that the truth of a proposition is determined by its coherence with other propositions that we believe to be true. ▪ derived from the Latin word "cohaerentia," which is a combination of "co-" (together) and "haerentia" (adhering or sticking). ▪ used to describe things that stick or hold together, either physically or figuratively. ▪ the quality of things or ideas sticking together logically or forming a unified whole. ▪ a proposition is true if it is consistent with our other beliefs. ▪ Proposes that something is true if it makes sense when placed in a certain situation or context. ▪ Based on this perspective, there is a possibility that there will be varied truths from different perspectives. ▪ An idea or statement is true because it makes sense in its own context. ▪ Ex. Muslims have a belief that certain animals like pigs are unclean. ▪ For Muslims, this fact prevents them from eating pork because it is unclean. This makes sense in the context of Islamic faith. Non-Muslims, however, do not share this belief and thus, do not subscribe to this practice. ▪ Relativism is a philosophical concept which contends that there are no absolute truths. ▪ An idea or principle is only true within a particular context. ▪ Therefore it is possible for alternative truths to exist in various contexts. 3. Constructivist theory ▪ Knowledge is shaped by social forces and influenced by culture and history. ▪ Knowledge is gained as part of a social experience and requires interaction and collaboration. ▪ Ex. Marriage  Truth is constructed by individuals and communities through their interactions with the world. Constructivists believe that there is no objective reality that exists independently of our minds, and that our knowledge of the world is always shaped by our own perspectives and experiences. What is true, is shaped by society and culture. It is possible then, for knowledge and truth to change because what is true may be influenced by historical developments and social struggles. In some societies, marriage is a highly important social institution (Phil). It is even reflected in our 1987 Constitution, that is why we do not have a divorce law. But on other countries, marriage is viewed as a contract between two consenting adults, therefore such union can be nullified through lawful means. 4. Consensus theory ▪ The consensus theory of truth is a theory of truth that states that the truth of a proposition is determined by whether or not it is accepted by a majority of experts or a relevant community. ▪ In other words, a proposition is true if and only if it is believed to be true by the majority of people who are knowledgeable about the subject matter. ▪ Consensus is also used to determine the truth of scientific claims, where experts must agree on a certain phenomenon before it can be established as true. ▪ Ex. Decision of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in 2006 to change the planet Pluto’s classification into a “dwarf planet.” 5. Pragmatic theory ▪ Something is true if we can put it into practice or is useful in real life. ▪ Ideas should be tested to confirm their validity. ▪ A related theory, verificationism, considers that ideas must be verified using the senses or experience. ▪ The scientific method, where experiments are designed to test hypotheses or confirm conclusions, is an example of a pragmatic approach. ▪ Ex. After six diet ▪ The theories on knowledge provide us varied perspectives in analyzing truth. ▪ Not one of these theories, can claim to be the most accurate measure of truth. ▪ In determining the validity and reliability of ideas, statements, and claims, we need to use a combination of these theories to arrive at a reliable assessment of what is truth.  Fallacies ▪ In determining the truth of any statement or claim, we must be familiar with how ideas are presented. ▪ Ideas and claims are often presented in the form of arguments, and these arguments are phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable. ▪ However, a number of arguments maybe based on faulty reasoning. ▪ These kinds of arguments are called fallacies.  Fallacy Characteristics Example Equivocation When a term is used Juan Ponce Enrile was in two or more a minister. different senses Pope Francis is a within a single minister. argument Therefore, Pope Francis is Juan Ponce Enrile. Amphiboly When there is a I read a book riding in defect in the a bus yesterday. grammatical construction of the sentence; double interpretation due to the structural defect  Fallacy Characteristics Example Composition When an attribute of Kate is an intelligent a specific part is girl. applied to the Kate studies in UP. collective whole. Hence, all who study in UP are intelligent. Division When attribute of a Socsci 12 students collective whole is are good debaters. applied to a specific Frank is a Socsci 12 part. student. Therefore, Frank is a good debater. Accent Faulty or undue Slow men at work. emphasis (accent or tone) upon certain words or statements  Fallacy Characteristics Example Ad Hominem (against the person) Ad Populom (appeal to the popular Ad Verecundiam (appeal to authority)  Fallacy Characteristics Example Ad Misericordiam (appeal to pity) Ad Baculum (appeal to force or fear Ad Ignorantiam (appeal to ignorance)  Fallacy Characteristics Example Accident General rule is taken Birds can fly. (sweeping to be universal and Therefore kiwis can generalization) the possibility of an fly. exception is ignored. Converse Accident The premises are Maria and Martha got (hasty generalization) individual cases and pregnant before the conclusion is a marriage and they are generalization. happily married. Therefore, it’s good to be pregnant before marriage. False Dilemma We presume two If you really love me, contraries used as then you will give it to contradictories me. wherein there are only two choices  Fallacy Characteristics Example Begging the question Involves a process of God exists because reasoning that depicts a the Bible says and the circular relationship between the premise and Bible is an infallible the conclusion. There is word of God. only one idea in the premise and the conclusion. It is just repeated. Complex question It appears as a single Have you stooped question loaded with two visiting my wife? or more hidden distinct questions. False cause Assuming a “cause I prayed for rain and it and effect comes. relationship between unrelated events Determining truth from opinion ▪ One should know the difference between fact and opinion. ▪ What is a fact? ▪ a fact is a statement or assertion that can be objectively verified and proven to be true or false. ▪ Facts are pieces of information that are based on empirical evidence, data, or direct observation and can be demonstrated or supported with little or no room for interpretation or subjectivity. Determining truth from opinion ▪ One should know the difference between fact and opinion. ▪ What is a fact? ▪ a fact is a statement or assertion that can be objectively verified and proven to be true or false. ▪ Facts are pieces of information that are based on empirical evidence, data, Determining truth from opinion ▪ Key Characteristics of Facts: 1. Objective and Verifiable: measured, observed, or tested by reliable means. 2. Consistent: It remains true under the same circumstances and is not open to interpretation or debate. It is universally accepted as true by reasonable people. 3. Empirical Evidence: supported by empirical evidence, which includes data, observations, experiments, or documentation that can be independently confirmed. Ex. "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level." "The Earth revolves around the Sun." Determining truth from opinion ▪ What is an opinion? ▪ an opinion is a personal belief, judgment, or perspective that is not necessarily based on objective, verifiable facts. ▪ Opinions are subjective and can vary from person to person. They represent an individual's feelings, preferences, or interpretations of a given topic or issue. Determining truth from opinion ▪ Key Characteristics: 1. Subjective: based on an individual's personal thoughts, feelings, and experiences. 2. Open to Interpretation: influenced by various factors, including personal values, cultural background, and emotional responses. 3. Not Necessarily Supported by Objective Evidence: do not require objective evidence or verifiable data to be valid. Opinions can be based on feelings, preferences, or intuition. ▪ Examples of Opinions: ▪ "Chocolate ice cream is the best flavor." ▪ "I believe that the government should invest more in healthcare." Determining truth from opinion ▪ What is a bias? ▪ a bias refers to a systematic and unfair inclination or prejudice in favor of or against a particular person, group, idea, or thing. ▪ Bias can influence how information is gathered, interpreted, and presented, leading to a distortion of the truth or a one-sided perspective.  Bias Characteristics Example Correspondence Tendency to judge a person’s personality “These policemen who are fighting the bias or by her actions, without regard for “War on Drugs” are all bloodthirsty attribution effect external factors murderers.” Confirmation Tendency to look for and accept “How can I accept her view that there is bias information which fits with one’s own no God? I am a Muslim. views and reject the views that go against it Framing Focusing on a certain aspect of a “Preliminary evidences have still not problem while ignoring other aspects pointed out the actual cause of the plane crash, but investigators are currently focusing on the possibility of a pilot error. Hindsight Tendency to see past events as “Magellan’s assault on Mactan was predictable, or to ascribe a pattern to foolish, made by an overconfident and historical events careless man who underestimated the valor of the native people.” Conflict of A person or group is connected to or has As the daughter of the accused, I believe interest vested interest in the issue being I have the right to express my opinion on discussed the issue of his alleged corrupt practices. Cultural bias Analyzing an event or issue based on “I do not agree with this practice of placing one’s cultural standards aged parents in retirement homes. We Filipinos take care of our family members.”  Key Messages Session Outline ▪ We are human beings possessed with reason. ▪ There are general principles involved in reasoning to arrive at truth. ▪ Correct reasoning is the most solid foundation in the attainment of truth. ▪ The different methods of philosophizing develops a habit of clear and critical thinking. MADAMO GID NGA SALAMAT!  INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON Module 3: How Do We Determine the Truth? Welcome to the Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person module on determining the truth. This module was designed to provide you with fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. You will be enabled to process the contents of the learning resource while being an active learner. Reminders: 1. You are expected to perform all activities or task that is being ask of you in the module. 2. Use a separate sheet of paper in answering the exercises. Do not forget to answer before moving on to the other activities included in the module. Keep a copy of your activity sheets including the answers. 3. Read the instruction carefully before doing each task. 4. Observe honesty and integrity in doing the tasks.If you encounter some difficulties in answering the tasks in this module, do not hesitate to consult the faculty-in-charge. Always bear in mind that you are not alone. I hope that through this material, you will experience meaningful learning and gain deep understanding of the relevant competencies. The purpose of this module is to articulate the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge, discuss the different bases of determining the truth, the different theories of knowledge and its application as well as the concept of fallacy. After going through this module, you are expected to: 1. Articulate the role of philosophy in determining truth and knowledge; 2. Discuss the philosophical bases of determining truth; 3. Identify and explain the different theories on truth and relate them to the problem of determining truth; 4. Describe how the theories on truth can be applied in actual situations; and 5. Explain the concept of fallacy and illustrate how the knowledge of these concepts help determine truth. Introduction The study of philosophy deals with the concept of truth. Why do we wonder? Why do we ask questions? The obvious answer is that, because we want to find out what is true or what is the truth. Truth lies at the heart of every inquiry (Abella, 2016). The knowledge that we gain from philosophy or from anywhere else must be truthful so that it can be considered as valid and acceptable. However, philosophers argue that there is no absolute measure of truth. But, there are different views that supports that we can arrive at a reasonable, logical and valid assessment if a statement, proposition, claim, an argument, an idea or event is believable or not. Truth What is truth? It is the body of real things, events, and facts or the state of being the case (Merriam-Webster, 2020). In other words, something is true or truthful if it is in accordance with fact or reality. Ancient Greek philosophy understood truth in relation to its concept of knowledge. The Greeks understood knowledge as “justified, true belief” (Abella, 2016). So for the Greeks, something is true because you believe that it is true, and there is justification for such a belief. How then do we justify our belief? Generally, people justify their belief on something or someone through the following: 1. Through perception 2. By Appeal to authority 3. Use of reasoning Theories of Truth As we have said before, the issue about truth is one of the core topics in philosophy. That is why philosophers developed theories on the nature of knowledge and truth. 1. Correspondence Theory - The basic idea of the correspondence theory is that something is true or what we believe or say is true if it corresponds to reality or the way things actually are – to the facts (Glanzberg, 2018). Ex. A mammal is any class of warm-blooded higher vertebrates. 2. Coherence Theory - A belief is true if and only if it is part of a coherent system of beliefs (Glanzberg, 2018). It proposes that something is true if it makes sense when placed in a certain situation or context. Now, there is a possibility that there will be varied truths depending upon perspectives. Ex. Muslims have a belief that certain animals like pigs are unclean. 3. Constructivist Theory - reality is construc