Ethics | Moral Philosophy PDF

ETHICS | MORAL PHILOSOPHY Using our rationality to figure out what we Kant: can know, what we can reason our way to, Goodwill. Rational person’s duty to a moral and what we ought to do? law which prescribes categorical imperative...

ETHICS | MORAL PHILOSOPHY Using our rationality to figure out what we Kant: can know, what we can reason our way to, Goodwill. Rational person’s duty to a moral and what we ought to do? law which prescribes categorical imperative (absolute command): treating others as If I were to say “stealing is wrong,” where is ends not means. The principled person the evidence that it is wrong? There is no must adhere to their principles in relevant sphere of evidence for moral philosophy situations. like there is in the natural sciences. Utilitarianism, Mill: We all intuitively know what the right thing to Consequences of an action determine its do is but why is it the right of course of moral character; to aim at the greatest action? How do we know it is the right happiness of the greatest number. course of action? 01 - Darwall | Introduction to Why is it right? Philosophical Ethics The law tells us it’s right. Culture tells us it’s Philosophical ethics is an inquiry into what right. Schools tell us it’s right. Society tells we ought to desire, feel, be, or do, focusing us it’s right. It wasn’t ours to begin with. on the normative aspects of human life. But at the end of the day, it’s up to us to It is deeply embedded in our daily lives, determine what’s right. One can see the influencing our emotions, conversations, wallet dropping as an opportunity to make and actions whether we are conscious of it quick money or a way to feed one’s family. or not. To feed one’s family isn’t wrong in fact one can and should argue that it is noble. Normative Ethics A branch of ethical inquiry that seeks to How do we know it’s right? understand the reasons behind our ethical Our ability to empathize with others tells us convictions. that the consensus is right because should we have been the ones to lose our wallets, It evaluates actions, behaviors, and we would want it returned to us. intentions based on a system of moral principles - is this right or wrong? There is rational consistency. I can’t have one rule for others and a rule for myself. I It is prescriptive in nature, providing can’t have others return my wallet to me but guidance on how individuals should behave. not return other people’s wallets. It looks to systemize ethical beliefs and actions into ideals and principles. Aristotle: Ethics of Virtue. Character formation. How to lead a good and happy life - by acting in accord with and thereby strengthening our virtues.  Ethical vs Nonethical Disagreement It is more abstract in that it focuses on Consider this scenario: understanding the underlying structure of Four people debate on whether a ethics rather than providing guidance for doctor should be able to perform moral decisions. assisted suicide. It questions the ontological status of moral The first two people disagree about properties, the meaning of ethical terms, the law based on their differing and the nature of moral reasoning. Are assessments of the unethical fact of these judgements and principles moral whether vulnerable individuals would to begin with? Why and How? What are be more likely to be taken advantage the implications of these ethical of if the law were to be passed. This thoughts? is an nonethical disagreement because the main debate is on the When we are faced with even greater law not on ethics. ethical disagreements those being that of abortion or assisted suicide, it is difficult to The third person opposes the law avoid more philosophical question about the altogether and cites that assisted very nature of ethics. suicide is morally wrong. They cite that humans are creatures of God Is there such a thing as truth in ethics? Is and God has a proprietary interest in ethical truth somehow relative? If there is our lives. ethical truth, whether relative or absolute, in what does it consist? The fourth person agrees with the third person in opposing the law but Philosophical Disciplines disagrees about the reason behind TRUTH VALUE the immorality of assisted suicide citing that humans intrinsically have Metaphysics Ethics value and killing is wrong. Political Philosophy Aesthetics Ethical propositions must be Epistemology supported by reasons and understanding the interrelations Philosophical between ethical convictions. They Psychology aren’t isolated issues but are connected to a broader system of Moral Philosophy or Ethics is considered beliefs and values. very similar to Aesthetics because it deals in values and value-judgments - the way things ought to be instead of the way Metaethics things are. How people should act. A branch of ethics that examines the nature, scope, and meaning of ethical evaluations It’s not aesthetics though because and judgments. aesthetics deals with perception. While both focus on the human experience, ethics’ goal is to guide behavior while aesthetics is to questions or just about how we get what we cultivate a specific kind of experience want. through art and the senses. If I want to become a lawyer, I have to work Moral Truth vs Empirical Truths hard; I recognize what I must or should The idea of a “moral truth” is somewhat do to achieve my goal. absurd. Who is to say that one set of values is higher than another set? What This is a practical reason and perhaps would the criteria used to hierarchically moral reasoning is about giving justification organize them be? Who decides? about possible courses of action we take. “Truth” in this case cannot necessarily Justification vs Intuitionism be fact. It is a fact that water boils at 100 The Moral Philosophers are not intuitionists, degrees and until proven false, the absolute those that say we simply have moral universal truth is that water boils at 100 intuitions. degrees. Nor are they theological moralists who state We can then use the is/ought or fact/value that what is right and wrong is simply difference. decreed by God. Moral Philosophy deals with what OUGHT Nor are they natural law theorists who say to be or the way things should be. But what that God decides the difference between we ought to do may not correspond to right and wrong and that God has implanted reality therefore we can argue there can be a way for us to tell the difference. no moral facts or moral truths! Moral Philosophers appeal to principle But isn’t it true that “killing is wrong” or and require that there is rational justification “torturing dogs are evil?” for claims. Kant: Practical Reason and Justifying The Danger of Relativism Actions Relativism suggests that there can Perhaps the questioning in itself is wrong. be no universal truths, no universal Maybe we should ask whether an action moral principles that will be true for can be morally justified and thus rational? everyone. All truth - moral or otherwise - is relative: to age, to It is possible for there to be two statements culture etc. that are equally true. “Water boils at 100 degrees” and “Water boils at 200 degrees.” Think the ancient Greeks and those Both are true. in the past who deemed slavery to be normal. Moral philosophy then Practical Reason will focus on people’s motivations When we deliberate about what we might or and on principles guiding our actions should do whether it is about moral (Kant) and on the consequences of those actions (Mill). Ethical Dilemmas Kant says lying is never justified, which is Chapter II: absolute. But if lying can save someone’s The discussion continues on the nature of life, is that not good or in this case, the Chief Good, emphasizing that it must be moral? something final and self-sufficient. Aristotle argues that happiness Mill’s emphasis on the greatest (eudaimonia) fits this description, as it is happiness can also lead to desired for its own sake and makes life contradictions as harvesting the organs of desirable and lacking in nothing. an individual can lead to more people being happy but one person dead. Means/End Relations: End is superior When playing music, what matters most is There is no simple answer as to what is the end product, not the playing itself. The the right thing to do. These situations are end is that for which we play musical always possible. instruments and sing. That is not to say all activities humans do Aristotle’s Teleology: Chains of contributes to the better of humanity. But Means/End Structures in The what we should pray for is that whatever Nicomachean Ethics of Aristotle we do turns out to contribute to our Book I: The Good for Man actual happiness rather than getting what Evey activity aims at what is thought to be we want. (a) good - acts. Activities are thus rational, purposive, and their ultimate end is Think of people who win lotteries. They get happiness. a huge sum of money but statistics will tell you they usually end up worse off compared To understand an act, you must understand to when they first won due to so many for what reason that act was performed. different factors. All of these ends work toward the chief and Causality final telos - happiness. An end that cannot If asked why we are studying in our course lead to another end. in university, there are two causes we can say to respond. Chapter I: Aristotle begins by discussing that every art, 1. I am in this course because I want to science, and action aims at some good. He be ___. introduces the concept of the "Chief 2. I am in this course because this is Good," which is the ultimate end that all what I am good at. actions aim to achieve. He suggests that this Chief Good is the end of the most The first is a teleological causation where commanding and inclusive science, which the logic begins with the end. The second he identifies as πολιτικὴ (politics or political is temporal causation where prior cause science), as it governs other sciences and precedes the effect. arts.  employment and financial independence from our parents. But even that is a means to starting a family or buying a grail item. Aristotle thinks there must be a terminus because if not, desire would be fruitless and vain. Everything would be ultimately aimless if there is no terminus. Aristotle argues against existentialism. Rapport between Aristotle and Essence can only be worked with existing. Heidegger Existence precedes essence because to The world is constructed in “towards-which” define purpose, we must first exist to do structures. activities that define us. To understand what a nail is, I need to know Telos of Nature that it works well with a hammer. We don’t Nature reveals its purposiveness: bodily simply understand the world, we have a organs have functions, fulfill ends. There is pre-comprehension of the world. a life-cycle oriented by telos. When you enter a classroom, you come The telos tell us how things should with the knowledge of how everything works progress, what we should aim at in our together and what role the tables, the actions and activities. chairs, the projector, the board, plays before it is even explained to you. Aristotle believes there must be such a final end to human activity, and he calls it - The world is defined and organized by its provisionally - The Good. It is that at which functionality. This pre-understanding of all activities aim. Being operates these “Towards-which” structures. It differs from a Platonist Form of the Good, the absolute good detached from human It is only when something is off do we ever existence. The Good for Plato must be consciously realize that it is wrong. A watch concrete and worldly. with a hand missing catches the eye because it fails to do what our Good seems to be a relative term and pre-comprehension understood it to do. differs from one case to another. It might be excellence, benefit, and good. Ultimate Terminus? If all that we do is a means, where does it Final End-Criterion to Good become the ultimate end? How do we There must be some desirable end in itself define it? for which all other ends are pursued. Getting a degree is the end of studying in university but is simply a means for Happiness Eudaimonia The pursuit of happiness has everything to Happiness is an end not a means. There do with the ethical prerogative of living and is no answer to “Why do you want to be acting well. happy?” It tells us nothing of how to become happy, or of what makes humans happy. But how do we reconcile with the idea of seeing people who do not practice or Everything is a means even if positioned attempt to be better doing just fine? into an end. Wealth for example cannot be what happiness is because the value of For Aristotle, these people are not genuinely wealth can only be obtained for what it is happy. Being happy requires aspiring to exchanged in resources. You have to do things well, requires aspiring to be analyze what further desire wealth serves. virtuous, requires aspiring to be saintly. Pleasure likely accompanies acts that we We tend to think of ethics not being about deem to be valuable, therefore it cannot our own happiness but the happiness of also be happiness because it is short-lived. others. I can’t do certain things that would It can be satiated and overtime it can make others unhappy. Aristotle feels it is a become joyless. false disjunction - the relationship between needing a good, comfortable Happiness can be achieved in a state of life and becoming a person who is flourishing. satisfied with life are very much interdependent. The State of Flourishing The State of Flourishing refers to attaining Book II: Moral Virtue and sustaining a high point of getting Chapter I: better. Aristotle distinguishes between intellectual and moral virtues. Intellectual virtues arise Doesn’t this imply that this means to a from teaching and require experience and further end and therefore contradicts the time, while moral virtues result from idea of happiness? habit. He argues that virtues are not innate but are developed through habituation. Life is difficult, factors outside your control, difficult events, but in the stoic element of Chapter II: Aristotle’s thought our values and character The focus is on the importance of will allow us to address these difficulties. habituation in forming virtues. Aristotle emphasizes that actions must be So to be happy means being able to performed in accordance with Right overcome these challenges and therefore Reason, which will be discussed further in needing to achieve what is quintessentially the text. human - the pre-condition of happiness is therefore the State of Flourishing. The Function of Man Argument Happiness as activities/actions performed in accord with man’s rational essence (the logos) > Acting rationally entails acting endowed with logos, rationality, speech, virtuously. language, capacity for acting with reasons, for making decisions about his actions that We need to define what humanity is. To he (try to) justify. do that, we need to find the broad general category it belongs to, and identify what is Return to the model of Teleological entirely distinctive about it within that Causality category. What renders human beings distinctive is that we are able to posit ends for ourselves. Man is an animal, and amongst all the We are able to make extraordinary goals animals, s/he alone is capable of beyond our natural necessities and reason speech/reason/rationality/rational decision what the best means are to achieve them. or justifications - logos. This is human-specific. Since performing a What is the function as a whole? Is it simply function is always to strive to perform that to live? To reproduce? Are we the same as function well, it is this exercising of our every other organism in the life cycle? reason in our actions - a practical reason - that we should strive to do well. Natural things are not the only function we have. We create things from pens to Acts and Character (virtues) watches to laptops, to utensils etc. We Humans acting does not occur in isolation make them with functions in mind. from humans’ characters. Our actions are a reflection of our character - acts create Such roles and functions live in systems virtue where there are functions to be assumed like universities, businesses, hospitals etc. Acts are thus a function not only of rational We do not come into existence already decision-making, but also the characters we endowed with a function - we acquire them have. To act well is to both act from our through skills and being part of systems. character and to contribute to the character we are developing. But if there are functions we learn or choose to have, there must be a pre-supposed Recapitulation of Aristotle’s Function of function we have as soon as we come Man Argument into existence. 1. Man has a function just like any other thing Things do function or should, ideally, 2. Function is not sentience since it is and optimally, function in accord with the not distinctive essence. A good knife cuts well. A good 3. What is distinctive is ability to make heart pumps well. A good guitarist plays the rational choices guitar well. A watch must tell the time 4. Those choices are a reflection of our well. character 5. To be happy, we must act according If we do have a function, our function asks to our own essence - reason us to do it well. Man is a rational animal,  6. To be happy, we perform our One must have prudence in the characteristic activity well by appropriateness of their judgements. cultivation of our character and Practical Wisdom involves understanding virtues the right rules of conduct and organizing them into a system that converges on Condition and Acquisition of Virtue happiness. What must be in place for a virtuous act to take place? Virtue and Character: Virtue is concerned with the regulation of Conditions of the Virtuous Act feelings and actions, and understanding the We are sensitive to pain and pleasure - we voluntary nature of actions is essential for tend to avoid virtuous actions because of legislators in assigning honors and sensibility to pain, or excessive appetite for punishments. pleasure. The Rookie The Veteran Temperance is a virtue that ensures we do Soldier Soldier not overindulge, to not become slaves to our appetites. But to perform temperance, 1. First time in the 1. Fought in many you need to willingly choose to act in heat of battle. battles temperate way/ 2. Needs to 2. Is accustomed to summon the the fear and need Voluntary and Involuntary Actions: courage to fight. not summon Aristotle begins by distinguishing between courage. voluntary and involuntary actions, as moral virtue is concerned with regulating feelings For Aristotle, the rookie soldier shows a and actions that are voluntary. deficiency because there is a need to summon up courage. Involuntary actions are those done under compulsion or due to ignorance. The veteran has courage ingrained in them Compulsory actions are those where the already. They are the ideal of virtue thanks origin of the action is external to the agent, to the numerous repetitions and situations such as being moved by a force like the where virtue was needed. Virtue must wind. become a predisposition. Actions done out of fear of greater evils or for honorable motives, such as Student 1 Student 2 committing a base act under duress to save Grew up in a Grew up in a loved ones, are considered mixed but more household where household where akin to voluntary actions. diligence and diligence and self-discipline were self-discipline were Acts must be voluntary, done with prized and became not prized and appropriate knowledge of the situation, a a diligent student. became a diligent function of a rational choice, and for its student. own sake. Aristotle would have preferred Student 1. It Appropriate Emotional Responses is disconcerting for us given that intuitively, Ideally, our emotions are rationally Student 2 deserves our praise. But the proportionate emotional responses to the situation of Student 1 is the ideal way stimulus giving rise to them ie. the right society should be. degree of satisfaction/pride felt at a given achievement. Aristotle ultimately believes that we are ultimately responsible for the characters we Our emotions cannot control us and at become, for the virtues we possess, or, that the same time we must ensure that they we have failed to acquire. can still work. Think of the Judicial system. If you do a We must train our emotions: weigh and crime, you did a crime. But sentences may adjust them proportionate to the situation be more lenient when background and built from the experience and determined by context is taken into consideration. practical wisdom in response to our current conditions. Doctrine of the Mean Between excess and deficiency, rationality Paradox of Acquisition of Virtues and hitting the mean between excess and Only the just man can perform the just deficiency. It is moderation. action. If I am not yet virtuous, how can I act virtuously? If acting virtuously makes me a There is a saying that you can never be too just man, why can I act them if I am not yet generous but you, in fact, can be too just? generous to the point that rather than relying on themselves, they rely on you. But It’s a vicious cycle that is very difficult to to completely ignore and void generosity, is rationalize. You need a job to get to be apathetic and indifferent - our virtue of experience but you need experience to get justice should make us feel indignation. the job. It would not make sense for Aristotle, to It’s circular reasoning. Ryan makes say that one has acted rationally and at delicious burgers because he’s a great cook the same time acted non-virtuously. and he’s a great cook because he makes delicious burgers. Aristotle posits virtues this way. Virtues are acquired by practicing, it is a practical skill. Nature gives not the ready-made virtue but the capacity/opportunity to acquire virtues. It is habituation through practicing or executing them often. You don’t come out writing in cursive. You learn cursive by doing cursive. You learn the ukulele by picking up the ukulele. You don’t Aristotle highlights the importance of the learn how to swim until you get in the pool agent's inner consent and the reality of and swim. Virtues then are the same way, individual responsibility in moral actions. you do them even if it’s the most rudimentary way. Book VI: Intellectual Virtue There is a false disjunction here. It’s not Overview: an all-or-nothing. It is a gradual process This book aims to describe the goodness of that is piecemeal. To become a fledged intellect and its highest forms, which are martial artist, you learn the basics and Theoretical and Practical Wisdom. develop it until you become someone like Theoretical Wisdom deals with eternal Lyoto Machida, Manny Pacquiao, Bruce truths, while Practical Wisdom is Lee, and Stephen Thompson. concerned with human conduct and is central to Ethics and Politics. Virtuous Spirals You need to get a start. By performing Books VIII and IX: Friendship temperate acts, you increase your likelihood Overview: to perform temperate acts - building a These books explore the concept of reserve of temperance. A more temperate friendship, which is seen as a necessary character makes us act temperately more complement to the more abstract often and thus develop virtue further. discussions of morality. Aristotle provides a detailed analysis of friendship, considering it The more experience I get, the better job an essential part of a good life and offering I can have. The better job I have, allows profound reflections on its nature and value. me to get a higher quality of experience. Book X: Pleasure Moral Responsibility: Overview: Aristotle emphasizes that praise and blame Aristotle revisits the topic of pleasure, are associated with voluntary actions, while examining its role in the good life. He involuntary actions may warrant argues that pleasure is a natural compassion or allowance. concomitant of perfect activity and is always a good, but its value depends on the activity He discusses scenarios like throwing goods it accompanies. The highest pleasures are overboard in a storm, which are technically those associated with the highest activities. voluntary at the moment but are generally considered involuntary because no one General Themes and Concepts would choose them for their own sake. Virtue and Habit: Aristotle emphasizes that virtues are Choice and Deliberation: developed through habit and that the The concept of choice is central to quality of one's actions determines the voluntary actions. Deliberation involves quality of one's character. thinking through means to ends, and actions done with deliberation are considered truly voluntary. The Role of Politics: Politics is seen as the master science that aims at the good of the community, which is greater and more perfect than the good of the individual. Moral Philosophy: Aristotle's Ethics is not just theoretical but aims at making individuals virtuous. It requires practical experience and good habits to truly understand and apply moral principles.