Developmental Psychology Notes PDF

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY YVETTE CAMANTILES, RPM  TOPIC WEIGHT NO. OF ITEMS 1. Perspectives on Nature and Nurture 5% 5 2. Research Methods in Developmental 5% 5 Psychology and Ethical Considerations 3. Deve...

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY YVETTE CAMANTILES, RPM  TOPIC WEIGHT NO. OF ITEMS 1. Perspectives on Nature and Nurture 5% 5 2. Research Methods in Developmental 5% 5 Psychology and Ethical Considerations 3. Developmental Theories 25% 25 4. Developmental Principles 5% 5 5. Developmental Issues and Tasks on 30% 30 Developmental Stages 6. Developmental Changes and Milestones on 30% 30 Developmental Stages Total 100% 100  WHAT IS DEVELOPMENTAL CHILD PSYCHOLOGY PSYCHOLOGY? prenatal beginnings to the early stages of their adolescence (0-12) Aims to explain growth, change, and consistency throughout the ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGY lifespan Indefinite age range (approx. 13- How thoughts, feelings, and 19/10-19) behaviors change throughout a person’s life – from conception BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL until old age - Look into the role of different Its goals are to describe, explain, factors of development and optimize development - Nature vs. Nurture  SIGNIFICANCE OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY JEAN-JACQUES ✓ to have an enriched understanding of children’s ROUSSEAU behavior and its relation with adult behavior Romantic Naturalism ✓ to increase knowledge on the process of Development proceeds development and the conditions conducive to according to an inner, physical and psychological well-being biological timetable ✓ to facilitate early detection of problems in Protect children from development and help in the prevention of deviant society or atypical behavior JOHN LOCKE ✓ to know the principles and stages of growth and Environmentalism the developmental tasks to expect from each stage Development is ✓ to utilize research and information on child study facilitated by society in caring for children in our society and address and the environment current issues on the welfare of children  THEORETICAL ISSUES ORGANISMIC MODEL CONTEXTUALIST MECHANISTIC MODEL MODEL - People actively initiate development - Development is an - Development is a ongoing and dynamic reaction to - Development is interaction between environmental input organic and self- the individual and regulating, occurring their environment - Development is a in qualitatively series of predictable - Considers culture, different stages history, social context, responses to stimuli etc.  NATURE NURTURE BIOLOGICAL PSYCHO COGNIT IVE APPROACH PSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIORISM ANALYSIS HUMANISM - Focus on Innate All behavior is generic, Innate drives Emphasizes learned from mental hormonal, of sex and basic physical the structures and aggression; needs; Society environment that are neurochemical Social influences a through constantly explanations upbringing person’s self- conditioning changed by of behavior during concept the childhood environment  Longitudinal Design Sequential Design - Following one group/ individual over time - Combine elements of both longitudinal and cross- - Time consuming, costly, high attrition sectional studies Cross-generational Effect – generalizing findings - Repeated study of cohorts over time to groups with different experiences as the study - Minimize cohort or cross-generational effects group - May be more resource intensive Controlled Laboratory/ Experimental Case Studies a systematic observation with a set of conditions -Descriptive and detailed record of an (independent variable) is manipulated to individual’s/group’s experiences or behavior determine their effect on a particular behavior + diagnostic purposes or theory development (dependent variable) - Low external validity + Causality, hypothesis testing; Low external validity Observational/ Naturalistic Method Research conducted in real-life settings where there is less control and manipulation of variables Self-report Surveys + Participant behaviors are more natural Accommodates significant sample sizes; - Less control over variables Questionnaires (written) or interviews (oral) Inaccurate assessments of the self, impression management DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT (PAPALIA, 2009) CRITICAL PERIOD Specific time when a given event, or its PHYSICAL absence has a specific impact on development growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, PLASTICITY motor skills; health Development can be subject to PSYCHO-SOCIAL modification and change emotions, personality, social relationships SENSITIVE PERIOD COGNITIVE learning, Periods in development when a person attention, memory, is particularly open to certain language, creativity, experiences reasoning  TYPES OF CHANGES IN HUMAN DEVELOPMENT EIGHT PERIODS OF HUMAN a. QUANTITATIVE DEVELOPMENT - easily measurable features; height and weight b. QUALITATIVE - descriptive features of development - changes in thought processes, personality etc. GROWTH – physical/physiological changes; quantitative; structure and form DEVELOPMENT - relatively predictable pattern of changes; qualitative; organization and function MATURATION - unfolding of traits resulting from the interaction of heredity and environment  RISK FACTORS – conditions that increase the likelihood of negative developmental outcomes CAUSAL FACTORS – conditions that result to certain developmental outcomes PROTECTIVE FACTORS – conditions or attributes the mitigate or eliminate risks  HEREDITY Male/ Father CHROMOSOMES X or Y - thread-like structures Female Infant = XX Male Infant = XY carrying hereditary units Female/ - 22 pairs of autosomes, 1 pair Mother X of sex chromosomes GENES - Pairs of hereditary units PHENOTYPES GENOTYPES - Genetic information is seen or observable seen and unseen, coded along the characteristics or dominant and recessive DNA (deoxyribonucleic attributes acid)  GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF HEREDITY 1. Principle of Consistency - Like begets like; Children resemble their parents more closely than other people 2. Principle of Variability- Like begets almost like; A child is like both parents but exactly like neither; Combination of hereditary factors 3. Chance Principle - Some hereditary factors cannot be predetermined 4. Principle of Dominance and Recessiveness - Dominant (common , strong) Recessive (weak)  AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITY CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: ABNORMALITIES IN SEX CHROMOSOMES: MALES DOWN SYNDROME KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME ; XXY or XXXY - Trisomy 21 phenotypically male; some female secondary sex - Some form of mental characteristics; retardation, congenital sterile (underdeveloped testes); about 20 to 30% defects; almond-shaped eyes have deficits in verbal intelligence (more with eyelid folds, round pronounced with increased X chromosomes) heads, short necks, protruding tongues, sloping JACOB’S/SUPERMALE SYNDROME: XYY, XYYY; foreheads and awkward- XYYYY footed walk phenotypically males; significantly taller than - Most have cheerful normal XY males; severe acne in adolescence. temperaments fertile (low sperm counts) May be affected by infantile autism  CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES: ABNORMALITIES IN SEX CHROMOSOMES: FEMALES TURNER’S SYNDROME ; XO POLY- X/SUPERFEMALE SYNDROME; Phenotypically female, small in XXX, XXXX, XXXXX stature, stubby fingers and toes, Phenotypically female; relatively a webbed neck, broad chest, normal small, underdeveloped breasts Fertile Sterile Relatively below average in Normal in verbal intelligence; intelligence; deficits in verbal below average on tests of spatial reasoning (more pronounced with abilities increasing number of X chromosomes)  GENETIC ABNORMALITIES CAUSES OF CHROMOSOMAL (usually from recessive or mutated genes) ABNORMALITIES: CYSTIC FIBROSIS - lack of enzyme that prevents 1. Uneven segregation of mucus from obstructing the lungs and the digestive chromosomes into tract daughter cells during meiosis. MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY (MD) – deterioration of muscles and loss of motor capabilities. 2. The mother’s age (“aging ova” TAY-SACH’S DISEASE – lack of enzyme that breaks hypothesis) down fatty substances 3. The father’s damaged HEMOPHILIA - “bleeders’ disease”; lack of substance sperm cell that causes blood clots DIABETES - inability to metabolize sugar due to low insulin production  NICHE PICKING CANALIZATION PRINCIPLE - Genotypes direct individuals to seek or - Genetic restriction of a create environments most compatible phenotype with their predispositions - Canalized traits are difficult to modify (e.g., eye color, blood type) RUBBER-BAND HYPOTHESIS - People are given different lengths of RANGE-OF-REACTION PRINCIPLE unstretched genetic endowments, but environmental factors may have - The genotype sets the range of stretched their expression to equal lengths possible outcomes for any attribute * In explaining a behavior, not all perspectives will - Environment may determine the be applicable. One perspective may explain a point within the range where the certain behavior but not another, and it is also individual would fall possible that more than one perspective can explain the behavior BEHAVIORAL - Observable behaviors and environmental determinants PERSPECTIVES - Development as a function of learned behaviors ETHOLOGICAL - Development as a process of adaptation; behaviors common to all children from different cultures; childhood behaviors result PERSPECTIVE from the need to survive and adapt ECOLOGICAL - Development is influenced by environmental systems a child PERSPECTIVE actively participates in and belongs in PSYCHODYNAMIC - Behavior stems from unconscious processes and early family PERSPECTIVES experiences; Manifest in dreams, slips of speech, mannerisms ORGANISMIC - Focuses on how children organize, assimilate and accommodate PERSPECTIVE information; Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Structural Theory  STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - Stimuli similar to the CS may also elicit the CLASSICAL conditioned response CONDIT IONING| IVAN PAVLOV STIMULUS DISCRIMINATION Neutral (conditioned) - Stimuli dissimilar to the CS will unlikely elicit stimulus is repeatedly the conditioned response paired with an unconditioned stimulus EXTINCTION until it is capable of eliciting the previously - Conditioned response will weaken when CS unconditioned response, repeatedly occur without the US now the called the conditioned response SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY - Reappearance of a conditioned behavior  OPERANT CONDITIONING TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT/ PUNISHMENT B.F SKINNER Immediate reinforcement of a Increase behavior by POSIT IVE response facilitates learning REINFORCEMENT presenting a positive SHAPING | Rewarding from gross stimulus approximations of the behavior to Increase behavior by closer approximations until the NEGAT IVE REINFORCEMENT removing an aversive desired behavior is achieved stimulus REINFORCEMENT Decrease behavior by POSIT IVE - Strengthens behavior and leads to PUNISHMENT presenting an aversive increase in frequency stimulus - Reward ≠ Reinforcement Decrease behavior by PUNISHMENT NEGAT IVE PUNISHMENT removing a positive - Unfavorable or unpleasant stimulus consequence; decrease frequency  EFFECTS OF PUNISHMENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT CONTINUOUS each response is reinforced Suppression of INTERMITTENT responses are reinforced occasionally behavior fixed number of responses is required Fixed Ratio before reinforcement is applied Conditions Fixed first response following a fixed negative feelings Interval period of time is reinforced Variable reinforcement is applied after the Ratio nth response Spreads its reinforcement is applied after the Variable effects Interval lapse of random or varied periods of time  SOCIAL LEARING THEORY ATTENTION ALBERT BANDURA Usually attend to those we frequently associate with and those that are ‘attractive’ OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING| Children learn by observing REPRESENTAT ION others; more efficient than Behavior patterns must be symbolically conditioning represented in memory BEHAVIORAL PRODUCTION MODELING Converting cognitive representations into - not simply imitation appropriate action, monitoring and - Add and subtract from evaluating progress observed behavior - Depend on several factors MOTIVAT ION Performance is facilitated by motivation to enact a behavior  PIAGET’S ADAPTAT ION ASSIMILATION – new information incorporated into existing cognitive structures ACCOMODATION – adjust one’s cognitive structure to fit new information EQUILIBRATION – constant striving for balance; assimilation -> accommodation  SOCIOCULTRAL THEORY LEV VYGOTSKY INFORMAT ION-PROCESSING THEORY - Cognitive growth is a - Cognitive development as a collaborative process function of the mental processes - Language as a means for involved in perceiving and learning handling information - Scaffolding - People are active thinkers - Zone of Proximal Development  MAJOR PHASES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 1. GERMINAL PERIOD CONCEPTION (8 – 14 days) Sperm cell fertilizes egg cell = zygote 1st Week Zygote undergoes mitosis 2nd Week Zygote -> blastocyst Implantation in uterus lining -> Hormonal changes to cease menses  MAJOR PHASES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 2. EMBRYONIC 3rd Week PERIOD Implanted blastocyst -> embryo (3RD TO 8TH WEEK) GASTRULATION – formation of germ layers MESODERM ENDODERM PLACENTA - Middle; Muscle & Inner; Digestive connected to skeletal systems & respiratory the uterus to systems provide oxygen ECTODERM and Outer; Skin & nourishment nervous system through the umbilical cord 3. FETUS/FETAL PERIOD (9TH WEEK – BIRTH) Embryo -> Fetus (major organs begin to function)  MATERNAL DISEASES AS TERATOGENS SEXUALLY - TRANSMITTED DISEASES ACQUIRED IMMUNITY DEFICIENCY SYNDROME PRENATALLY - virus passes through the placenta DURING BIRTH - exchange of blood between mother and child AFTER BIRTH - virus is passed through the mother’s milk  DRUGS AS TERATOGENS ASPIRIN – neonatal ALCOHOL (FETAL ALCOHOL THALIDOMIDE bleeding, gastrointestinal SYNDROME) - microcephaly, - mild discomfort, fetal growth malformation of heart, limbs, tranquilizer retardation, infant death joints, face; irritability, 21ST day = likely ANTIBIOTICS – hearing loss, hyperactivity, seizures and w/o ears premature delivery, cataracts tremors 25th-27th day = VITAMINS A - cleft palate, NICOTINE – retard fetal deformed/no arms heart malformation growth, risk of spontaneous 28th- 36th day = VITAMIN B6, C, D AND K - abortion, stillbirth, and deformed/no legs prenatal deformities infant mortality PHOCOMELIA ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE – heart malformation, cervical NARCOTICS – premature cancer in female infants delivery, infant addiction, stroke  ENVIRONMENTAL TERATOGENS RADIATION CHEMICALS & - mutations, POLLUTANTS spontaneous abortions, - Dyes, pesticides, other birth defects (esp. food additives, 1ST trimester) cosmetics - Infants are at risk of - Lead, zinc, mercury developing cancer in in the air/water later life  PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT CEPHALOCAUDAL GROWTH MUSCLES AND BONES - top-down growth; Learn to use upper body first At birth, most bones are soft Some have no bones PROXIMODISTAL GROWTH (fontanelles) - Inner to outer growth Bones harden at different - Learn to use limbs first before hands or feet rates (hand and wrist are the fastest) OBSTETRICS DILEMMA: Muscles change in length The mother’s birth canal can no and thickness; total mass of longer reliably accommodate muscle increases greatly over babies if they were born later or were more physically developed the first 14 – 15 years of life.  HEIGHT AND WEIGHT THE FILIPINO CHILD’S GROWTH Neonates = 1/3 of final height Food and Nutrition Two-year old = about half of adult Research Institute (FNRI) height - 3/10 Filipino children aged five and below are Proportions: too short for their age or Trunk is the slowest = “legginness” stunted Ages 10 ½ to 15, the adolescent - 2/10 Filipino children in growth spurt occurs the same age range are Most rapid growth lasts only two underweight years, then height gradually - Chronic malnutrition increases to full adult height and lack of education  REFLEXES DARWINIAN REFLEX | BABINSKI REFLEX | MORO REFLEX | - Palm is stroked; - Sole of foot is makes a strong fist stroked; Toes fan out WALKING REFLEX | When baby is dropped or TAA: 7 month of and foot twists in Baby is held up with when there is a gestation TAA: Birth feet touching a flat loud noise; surface Extends limbs, TAD: 4 months TAD: 4 months - Makes step-like arches back, motions draws head TONIC NECK REFLEX | ROOTING REFLEX | back Baby is laid down on - Baby’s cheek or lip is TAA: 1 month TAA: 7 month back; Head on one stroked; Mouth opens TAD: 4 months of gestation side, fencer position and sucking occurs TAD: 3 months TAA: 7 month of - TAA: Birth gestation TAD: 9 months TAD: 5 months  MOTOR DEVELOPMENT Basic motor skills are not taught FINE MOTOR SKILLS GROSS MOTOR SKILLS - Movements that use small muscles (e.g., - Movements that use large muscles grasping a toy, drawing a circle) (e.g., rolling over, swinging arms) 0 - 1 month 10 - 13 months 4 - 7 months Basic reflexes are exercised Head and arm control; Control of legs, feet, (e.g., rooting, Darwinian, etc.) raise chin and head when fingers; refine prehension lying on stomach; Stands and walks alone 1 - 4 months reaching movements Perfection of visual control 13 - 24 months and eye movement coordinates 7 - 10 months Perfection of prehension; with the head Trunk and hand control; walks sideways, backward, Difference between prehension and immature and up and down; fast moving/stationary objects grasp; sits alone walk-run  THE PROGRESSIVE STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 1. ATTENTION TO SPEECH 2 MONTHS | Baby has new noises, such 1 MONTH | respond to human voices as squeals, cheers, and cooing differently from other stimuli repeated in a circular fashion 9 MONTHS | distinguish speech sounds 3 MONTHS + | Accidental Imitation -> without comprehension Deliberate 4-5/6-10 MONTHS | BABBLING 2. PRE-SPEECH FORMS (requires some level of motor GESTURES | Before babies speak, they development) point and make gestures 1 YEAR + | Changes in intonation; Use CRYING| initial and primary form of long, complex sequences of communication meaningless sounds  C. THE FIRST WORDS LINGUISTIC SPEECH - verbal expressions that convey meaning 10 MONTHS-1 YEAR | HOLOPHRASES D. THE FIRST SENTENCES 18-20 MONTHS | TELEGRAPHIC SPEECH - Simple sentence structures (two or three essential words) 2 YEARS+ | Sentence structures become more adult-like E. GRAMMAR 2 YEARS+ | GRAMMAR (rules of language; combining word order, intonation, and inflection) in response to their environment  Piaget’s Cognitive Stages Sensorimotor Stage (0-2) SCHEMES | organized patterns of thought and behavior - Coordinate sensory inputs with motor capabilities IMITAT ION OBJECT 12 - 18 MONTHS PERMANENCE - Observations of behavior - Existence continues even are likely imitated without sensory markers DEFERRED IMITATION Implicated in memory -Imitate from memory; Modeling development and the formation -18 – 24 months of attachments  Preoperational Stage (2-7) - Symbolic thought without logic 1. Preconceptual 2. Intuitive Period Concrete - Only deal with the Period 4 - 7 YEARS OLD present, immediate, and simple 2 – 4 YEARS OLD Irreversible - Lack the mental SYMBOLIC - Perception is mostly ability to undo events FUNCTIONING based on face-value or - Ability of how things appear to Egocentric - Difficulties with representation be perspective-taking - Classification based Centration - Difficulties PRETEND PLAY on obvious features dealing with multiple aspects - Take on and such as size, shape, assign roles and color Transductive Reasoning - Event A -> Event B; illogical conclusions  Concrete-Operational Stage (7-11) - Operational schemes are applied to objects, situations, or events (real or imagined) RELAT IONAL LOGIC CONSERVAT ION -Redistributing a SERIATION TRANSITIVITY material does not always affect its - Ability to arrange objects - Describe mass, volume, or relations of length based on increasing value or items or objects quantity in a series  Formal-Operational Stage (11+) - Creation of ideas and propositions; reason logically about hypothetical processes and events; abstract reasoning COORDINATE MULTIPLE FACTORS COMPLEX SYMBOLISM IN PROBLEM-SOLVING - Use symbols to - Handle many facts represent other symbols simultaneously Second-order - Test hypotheses and symbolic systems possible solutions - Metacognition  Kohlberg’s Morality Development Preconventional Level Conventional Level Postconventional Level (4-10) (10-13+) (-) STAGE 3: MUTUAL STAGE 5: MORALITY OF STAGE 1: PUNISHMENT RELATIONS AND APPROVAL CONTRACT, RIGHTS, AND AND OBEDIENCE - Please and help others; ACCEPTED LAWS - Obey rules to avoid evaluate based on motives -Rational; Value the will punishment and the person and welfare of all STAGE 2:INSTRUMENTAL STAGE 4: SOCIAL CONCERN STAGE 6: MORALITY OF PURPOSE & EXCHANGE AND CONSCIENCE UNIVERSAL ETHICAL - Self-interested - Duty, respect for PRINCIPLES authority, social order conforming of rules; -People act according to transactional internalized standards  STAGES OF ATTACHMENT 1. Pre-Attachment/ Asocial Stage (0- 6 weeks) | Babies have no particular attachment; Later on, show preference for some social stimuli 2. Indiscriminate Attachment Stage (6 weeks-7 months) | Infants start to prefer human company and protest when left alone; no specific company is preferred yet 3. Discriminate Attachment Stage (7 months-11 months) | Develop a strong preference for specific individuals and will protest when separated; Mothers tend to be the primary attachment figures; Fear of strangers develop 4. Multiple Attachments Stage (9-10 months onwards) Infants form strong emotional bonds with other significant and regular companions; Object permanence  Secure ATTACHMENT STYLES Disorganized Attachment Ambivalent Avoidant Attachment - Healthy relationship Attachment Attachment -Lack of clear with caregivers attachment - Anxious-resistant - Anxious-avoidant relationship - Appropriately - Distressed when - Little distress when -Erratic reactions; child distressed when the caregiver leaves (+) caregiver leaves and is frightened of caregiver leaves but is but is not comforted does not acknowledge caregiver or has happy when they (-) when they return them when they contradictory return - Child believes that return responses to them - Child believes that the caregiver is - Child believes that -Child is severely their needs are met in inconsistent and the caregiver is confused by caregiver’s a quick and unreliable dismissive and cannot actions; may have consistent way - Anxious, insecure, meet their needs history of abuse; - Happy, curious, able to constant need for - Distant, may downplay survival mode trust, communicate reassurance, sensitive relationships, critical of -May show abnormal effectively, regulate others, self-reliant behavior, non- to criticism, jealous emotions responsive, tendencies,  Marcia’s Four Identity Status CRISIS HIGH LOW FORECLOSURE STATUS IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT (unquestioning adoption HIGH STATUS COMMITMENT of parental/societal (sense of identity) values) IDENTITY DIFFUSION MORATORIUM STATUS STATUS LOW (actively struggling for (no concern for sense of a sense of identity) identity) Emerging Adulthood (18-25) Recentering shifting into an adult identity -Transitional stage between STAGE 1: Still embedded in family but expectations for adolescence and adulthood self-reliance increase -Response to changing socio- STAGE 2: No longer embedded economic factors in family; Exploration; -Age of identity exploration, Beginning of serious instability, self-focus, feeling in- commitments between, and possibilities STAGE 3: Full independence and commitments  Typological Model -Jack Block -Expand trait theory EGO RESILIENCY & EGO CONTROL EGO RESILIENT well-adjusted, confident, cooperative, task-focused OVERCONTROLLED Shy, quiet, anxious, dependable, conflict-averse UNDERCONTROLLED Active, energetic, impulsive, easily distracted  STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF LOVE Three Basic Components PASSION -an intense physiological/sexual desire INT IMACY -Openness, closeness, bondedness, connectedness. COMMITMENT -willingness to stay and maintain relationship -decision component consists of short-term and long- term goals  LIKING NON-LOVE Intimacy alone; warmth absence of components ROMANT IC LOVE CONSUMMATE COMPANIONATE LOVE Intimacy + passion; LOVE Intimacy + physical & emotional Complete/ideal commitment; non- bond without relationship passionate long-term commitment Must be relationships maintained INFATUAT ION EMPTY LOVE Passion alone; FATUOUS LOVE Commitment alone; idealized; Passion + commitment; Stagnant Unstable Unstable without intimacy  Menopause -A transitional process with permanent cessation of ovulation and menstruation -Generally one year after the last menstrual period Perimenopause -Several years of physiological changes of menopause *Declining estrogen does not affect sexual appetite  Relationship With Aging Parents Marcoen et al. (1995) Filial Crisis -Adults learn to balance love and duty to parents with autonomy Filial Maturity -Middle-aged children learn to accept parent’s need to depend on them -Healthy outcome of filial crisis