GEED 20113: People and Earth's Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 PDF

GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 INTRODUCTION AND COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM 2. Poikilotherms - their body temperature Environment and Ecosystem changes...

GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 INTRODUCTION AND COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM 2. Poikilotherms - their body temperature Environment and Ecosystem changes when environmental Environment refers to the surroundings, whereas, temperature changes. ecosystem is the interaction between the 3. Heterotherms - can regulate their body environment and the living organisms. Environment temperature at a constant level some of is the area where living organisms live. Ecosystem the time, usually hibernating mammals. is the community where the biotic and abiotic elements interact with each other. HIBERNATION: Common COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM dormouse (Muscardinus avellanarius) curled up asleep in nest with hazelnuts. Hummingbird in TORPOR Abiotic components: Abiotic components are the non-living chemical and physical components that influence living things in terrestrial and aquatic life zones. Fat tailed lemur of Madagascar in Two types of Abiotic components: AESTIVATION 1. Climatic - non living factors which are responsible for determining the climatic conditions of an area. 2. Edaphic - An abiotic factor relating to the physical or chemical composition of the soil found in a particular area. Abiotic components Temperature - is an abiotic factor strongly influenced by sunlight. It greatly During winter affects the metabolism of organisms. dormancy, plant While some animals and plants can bear metabolism comes to a extreme heat or cold, others can only virtual standstill, due in survive well in moderate temperature part to low ranges. temperatures that slow Animals may be classified by how they respond to chemical activity. environmental temperatures: 1. Homeotherms – can maintain a constant body temperature. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Abiotic components Annual changes in photoperiod cause a wide Sunlight - which provides all the energy variety of behavioral changes in Peromyscus sp. for ecosystems. It is necessary for Long day lengths support reproductive function, photosynthesis. Sunlight plays a role in the including behavior. Decreasing day lengths production of oxygen and to an area’s promote alterations in aggression, cognition, and temperature. metabolic function. After becoming refractory to short days, mice develop long-day traits and Plants are classified under three groups according once again invest in reproduction. to their photoperiods: 1. Short day plants - like chrysanthemum, Abiotic components rice, soybean, onion. Water – is a very important abiotic factor- 2. Long day plants - spinach, lettuce, wheat. it Is often said that “water is life”. All 3. Day - neutral plants - cucumber, corn, organisms need some water intake. It is tomato. critical for cellular processes. Water covers 70 percent of the Earth’s surface and falls Photoperiodism - is the developmental responses as rain or snow over land. In an of plants to the relative lengths of light and dark environment with little water, only periods. organisms requiring a small percentage Phytochrome - photoreceptor protein that senses of water can survive. Other animals thrive seasonal changes in night length, or photoperiod, in conditions with large amounts of water, which they take as signals to flower. such as marine plants and animals. Plants can also be classified ecologically according Animals evolved many adaptations to retain water: to their light requirement whether as Heliophytes or Some have oily or waxy skin to retain Sciophytes. moisture Freshwater organisms excrete dilute urine Marine animals sneeze out water vapor to maintain solute concentrations Plants based on their water requirements can be categorized as : 1. Hydrophytes- can live floating or submerged into the water. 2. Mesophytes- are terrestrial plants that can live in an average supply of water. 3. Xerophytes- can live in limited amounts of water, they are extremophiles that live in dry habitats. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 HYDROPHYTES They have small sized leaves with waxy coating. e.g. Acacia. In some plants, leaves are modified into spines. e.g. Opuntia. Some of the xerophytes complete their life cycle within a very short period when sufficient moisture is available MESOPHYTES Roots are poorly developed as in Hydrilla or absent as in Wolffia. Plant body is greatly reduced as in Lemna. Submerged leaves are narrow or finely divided. e.g. Hydrilla. Floating leaves have long leaf stalks to enable the leaves move up and down in Mesophytes do not have any specific response to changes in water level. e.g. morphological adaptations. They usually Lotus. have broad, flat and green leaves; an Air chambers provide buoyancy and extensive fibrous root system, to absorb mechanical support to plants as in water; and the ability to develop Eichhornia (swollen and spongy petiole). perennating orgrans such corms, rhizomes and bulbs to store food and XEROPHYTES water for use during drought. Osmoregulation in Freshwater fish Sneezing Marine iguana They have well developed roots. Roots grow very deep and reach the layers where water is available as in Calotropis. They store water in succulent water storing parenchymatous tissues. e.g. Opuntia, Aloe vera. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Properties of Water 1. Water exists in nature in three phases 2. Water is a universal solvent 3. Water has high surface tension 4. Water exhibit capillary action 5. Water has high specific heat 6. Water has a neutral pH Abiotic components Wind - is a moving air caused by differences by air pressure due to uneven heating on the Earth’s surface by the Sun. It influences the rate of evaporation and transpiration. The physical force of wind can move soil particles, water or other abiotic factors, as well as ecosystem’s organisms. It is vital for pollination and SOIL PROFILE seed dispersal. Soil - is an abiotic factor since it is mostly made up of small particles of rock mixed with decomposed plants and animals. Soil serves as a habitat for many organisms and source of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Soils are different from place to place, thus can be an important factor in determining the kind of organisms in a certain area. SOIL TYPE SOIL PH Soil pH is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in pH units. Soil pH plays a critical role to the absorption and utilization of essential trace elements required for healthy plant growth. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 environment or by capturing sunlight to make glucose via photosynthesis. Examples are green plants and phytoplankton 2. Consumers (heterotrophs or other- feeders) - get their energy and nutrients by feeding on other organisms or their remains. They can be primary consumers (herbivore), secondary consumers (carnivore) or tertiary consumers or omnivores. 3. Decomposers - includes bacteria and fungi that recycle organic matter in the environment 4. Detritivores are the detritus feeders. TROPHIC LEVELS A trophic level is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain. SOIL COLOR Produces are usually found at the base of Soil color indicates the composition of the soil and an ecological pyramid and thus, the first provides insights into the environmental conditions, trophic level. formation processes and other influences on the Primary consumers make up the second soil trophic level. Secondary consumers make up the third trophic level and so on.. Biotic components: Biotic components are the living factors of the ecosystem. It includes plants, animals, and even microorganisms. They can be classified according to their mode of energy acquisition as Autotrophs or Heterotrophs. Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own food from an energy source, such as the sun (photoautotrophs) and inorganic compounds (chemoautotrophs). Heterotrophs are organisms that consume other organisms as a food source. Major biological components are classified based on their ecological niche: 1. Producers (autotrophs or self-feeders) - can make their own food from compounds obtained from their GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 FOOD CHAIN Food chain is the transfer of energy and nutrients from one feeding group of organism to another. It shows where energy is transferred and not who eats who. The producers, consumers and decomposers make up a food chain. 2 types of Food Chain Grazing food chain Detrital Food chain FOOD WEBS In ecosystems, some consumers feed on a single species, but most consumers have multiple food sources. In this way, individual food chains become interconnected to form a food web. ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the relationship between different organisms in an ecosystem. Each of the bars that make up the pyramid represents a different trophic level, and their order, which is based on who eats whom, represents the flow of energy. Types of Ecological Pyramids: 1. Pyramid of Numbers 2. Pyramid of Biomass 3. Pyramid of Energy GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 NITROGEN CYCLE atmosphere into ammonia (NH₃), which plants can Key Terms: absorb. Nitrogen Fixation: Conversion of N₂ gas into N2 to NH3/NH4+ ammonia. or NO3- Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia into nitrites and nitrates. Assimilation: Plants absorbing nitrates for growth. 2. Nitrification: Bacteria in the soil change Ammonification: Decomposers returning ammonia into nitrates (NO₃⁻) that plants nitrogen to the soil. use to grow. Denitrification: Bacteria converting nitrates back to nitrogen gas. What is nitrogen? NH3 to N03- Nitrogen is a gas that makes up 78% of Earth’s atmosphere; the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. 3. Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrates and Essential/Vital for living organisms as it is use them to make proteins. Animals get a key component of proteins and DNA. nitrogen by eating plants. However, nitrogen in its natural form (N₂ gas) cannot be used directly by most organisms. Usable Nitrogen in the natural world came INCORPORATION OF from bacteria i.e. Rhizobium (bacteria in NH3 AND NO3- INTO roots of legumes that provide Nitrogen), BIOLOGICAL TISSUES and free-living bacteria in the genus Azotobacter are some of these bacterias. How do we use Nitrogen? 4. Ammonification: When plants and Through the chemical and biological animals die, decomposers break them processes that form the nitrogen cycle. down, returning nitrogen to the soil as NITROGEN CYCLE ammonium (NH₄⁺). The nitrogen cycle is the process by which nitrogen moves between the ORGANIC NITROGEN atmosphere, soil, COMPOUNDS TO plants, animals, NH3 and back into the atmosphere. 5. Denitrification: Other bacteria convert Although nitrogen nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N₂), which makes up about 78% of the air, most organisms goes back into the atmosphere, can’t use it in its natural form (N₂ gas). Here's a brief completing the cycle. breakdown: 1. Nitrogen Fixation: Special bacteria convert nitrogen gas from the NO3- to N2 GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 “This cycle is essential for all life, as nitrogen is a key movement of phosphorus in the component of DNA and proteins”. lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. The atmosphere does not play a Why is the Nitrogen Cycle important? significant role in the movement of The nitrogen cycle converts nitrogen into phosphorus. forms that plants and animals can use. Phosphorus-based components are It moves nitrogen between the usually solids at the typical ranges of atmosphere, soil, plants, animals, and temperature and pressure found on Earth back to the atmosphere, keeping the Extremely slow process, weather ecosystem balanced. conditions (rain and erosion) wash phosphorus away from rocks into the soil. Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle: Significance of Phosphorus Fertilizers: Overuse of synthetic fertilizers Essential for animal and plant growth adds too much nitrogen to the soil, leading Essential for the health of microbes in the to water pollution and algae overgrowth soil, but is gradually depleted from the soil (eutrophication). over time. Fossil Fuels: Burning fuels releases Formation of nucleotides which nitrogen compounds, contributing to comprise DNA and RNA molecules greenhouse gases and climate change. Quick Quiz: 1. What process converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can use? 2. Which bacteria turn ammonia into nitrites and nitrates? 3. What is the role of decomposers in the nitrogen cycle? 4. How do humans impact the nitrogen cycle through farming? 5. Why is denitrification important in the nitrogen cycle? Phosphorus Cycle Steps PHOSPHORUS CYCLE 1. Weathering What is the phosphorus cycle? Rocks - main source of phosphorus Weathering extracts phosphorus from rocks Rain and other forms of erosion wash phosphorus into the soil 2. Absorption by Plants and Animals Phosphorus gets into the soil and water systems. Plants, fungi,, and microorganisms absorb The phosphorus cycle is the phosphorus from the soil. biogeochemical cycle that describes the Plants absorb it from water system GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Animals obtain phosphorus by CARBON CYCLE eating plants and drinking water. What is the Carbon Cycle? 3. Return to Environment via The process where carbon compounds Decomposition are interchanged among the biosphere, Decomposition of dead animals geosphere, hydrosphere, and and plants return phosphorus atmosphere. into the soil. Phosphorus returns to the soil and water Plants and animals in those environments can then use this phosphorus and cycles back to Step 2 Human Impact on the Phosphorus Cycle Fertilizer Distribution of Food Products Artificial Eutrophication ○ Eutrophication - the process in which a body of water becomes overly enriched with nutrients Simplified Steps of the Carbon Cycle leading to plentiful growth of simple plant life (algae). 1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is ○ When humans cause this, it is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis. called artificial eutrophication. 2. Plants are consumed by animals and carbon gets bioaccumulated into their Fertilizers containing phosphorus add to bodies. the phosphorus levels in the soil. 3. Upon decomposition, these plants and ○ This can be detrimental animals release carbon into the especially when washed to the atmosphere. local aquatic system. 4. Some of the carbon become fossil fuels over time. 5. Fossil fuels are used for human activities, releasing more carbon back into the atmosphere. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Significance of Carbon 2. Respiration ○ A biological process that occurs Base of All Organic Compounds (OCs) in all living organisms. ○ It can form millions of stable and ○ C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + diverse compounds ATP ○ From simple to complex ○ OCs are an essential part of the cells of all living organisms. Earth Temperature ○ Carbon -> Carbon Dioxide (CO2) ○ CO2 is a greenhouse gas. ○ Greenhouse gases are responsible for Earth not freezing (must be in small qualities) Greenhouse Effect 3. Decomposition ○ The breaking down of inorganic matter by decomposers into simpler compounds. ○ Organic Matter → CO2 + H2O + Nutrients Solar radiation ○ powers the climate system ○ some is reflected by the Earth and the atmosphere ○ Half of it is absorbed by the Earth's surface, warming it 4. Fossilization Infrared radiation is emitted from the ○ The process in which an Earth's surface organism's remnants or traces are left in the fossil record. Carbon Cycle Process 1. Photosynthesis ○ A process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy. ○ 6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2 GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 5. Sedimentation ○ The process by which sediments like sand, mud, and silt are deposited as a result of water, wind, and ice. ○ Sedimentary rocks are sediment layers are compressed and cemented over time. Human Impact on the Carbon Cycle Burning Fossil Fuel ○ Largest human source of CO2 emissions ○ Major contributors - home energy use, industrial processes, and transportation Deforestation 6. Combustion ○ Forests absorb CO2 ○ A chemical reaction between fuel ○ Cleared forests for logging, and an oxidizer (like O2) that agriculture, or urban expansion generates heat and produces release carbon back into the water vapor, carbon dioxide, and atmosphere as CO2 other combustion byproducts. ○ ○ Crucial in many processes: Effects of the Above production, transportation, ○ Led to increase in CO2 emissions, energy. contributing to greenhouse ○ CH + O2 → CO2 + H2O effect ○ disrupts carbon cycle, higher level of CO2 in the atmosphere ○ Accumulation of atmospheric CO2 traps heat ○ Leads to climate change and global warming IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 7. Oceanic Carbon Cycle ○ The procedures through which A scientific organization that investigates CO2 is transferred from the climate change oceans to the atmosphere. Carefully assesses the effects of human i. atmosphere-ocean gas activities on the carbon cycle and climate exchange change ii. biological production and consumption iii. carbon movement within the ocean GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 WATER CYCLE Water Cycle Diagram Definition Processes of Water Cycle Water is the liquid that allows life on Earth to exist. 1. Evaporation Water changes our world and practically every aspect of our existence as it cycles from the air to the land to the sea and back to the air again, repeating the cycle. Significance of Water All Living Things Need Water! Water is an essential element for sustaining life as we know it, and wherever water exists, life thrives. Every living organism, including people, animals and plants, relies on water regardless of its salinity, Evaporation is the process of liquid turning into a temperature, or availability. gas, this gas is called water vapor. This is the reason Significance of the Water Cycle why some puddles are gone later on and why wet Water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is driven by the clothes become dry. This occurs because of heat Sun’s energy. It is the continuous movement of that makes the water molecules move faster and water all around the Earth. faster, so fast that they eventually escape as gas. The water cycle has a great impact on our economy as it allocates water to different places, and regulates the weather, and this process cleans Evapotranspiration the water giving us fresh water that we may which happens when consume. water evaporates through the leaves of Importance of Understanding the Water Cycle plants. Understanding the water cycle allows us to prepare and adapt to its process. We can observe its Did you know? pattern which is useful for forecasts of meteorologists and for us to form strategies to When water evaporates from the oceans, the salt manage our water resources. remains behind as it is denser and heavier than water vapor. This is why the water that evaporates from the oceans and forms clouds is not salty. Factors Affecting Evaporation GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Temperature - Humidity, which represents the the higher the amount of water vapor in the air, temperature the also influences condensation. It is usually represented as a higher the percentage, showing the ratio of evaporation is. the actual moisture in the air to the maximum amount it can Surface area - the contain at a given temperature. flatter the surface area (increases), the higher 3. Precipitation Precipitation is any liquid or frozen water the evaporation is. that forms in the atmosphere and falls back to the earth. It takes several forms, Humidity - The higher including rain, sleet, and snow. the humidity the higher the evaporation rate. Rainfall explanation When the temperature is above freezing Wind speed - This point (0 degrees Celsius), water vapors in the air will condense and form water is when the wind droplets. However, this condensation speed increases, process requires the presence of dust the rate of particles or other impurities as nuclei for evaporation also the droplets to form around. increases. Snowfall explanation 2. Condensation In very cold temperatures or under extremely low air pressure, the water When the water vapor that has risen into droplets freeze and descend a snowflakes the sky comes into touch with the colder or hailstones. air found up above, it dramatically cools. These vapors condense as a cloud, which is carried by air currents and winds as they move around the globe. Formation of clouds and fog In the formation of clouds, fog, mist, or frost depends on the specific circumstances. Type of Precipitation Rain is the most frequently observed type of precipitation. Raindrops that exceed 0.02 Role of Temperature and Humidity inches or 0.5 mm in diameter are Temperature and Humidity both commonly recognized as play important roles in the raindrops. process of condensation. The Snow is a form of precipitation temperature has the role of that descends from the transporting and changing the atmosphere as tiny ice crystals. water vapors. These snow crystals typically exhibit a branched and star-like GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 structure with six distinct points. 5. Deposition They are created when water vapor in the clouds freezes and subsequently falls to the ground. Deposition is the Sleet is a form of precipitation exact opposite that consists of frozen raindrops of sublimation or snowflakes that have where gas turns undergone a process of into solid refreezing after reaching the directly. ground. Hail is a form of precipitation that descends from the sky as small 6. Runoff ice balls or pieces, each measuring at least ¼ inch (5 mm) The water, being in diameter or larger. It is typically on the ground, is associated with thunderstorms being pulled to and can cause significant its resting point damage to crops and property where some of it when the hailstones reach a is compiled into diameter of 1 inch (2.5 cm) or a body of water more. until it reaches the ocean. Factors Influencing Precipitation Pattern When rainfall does not contribute to the formation prevailing winds -carry warm, of aquifers, it instead follows the force of gravity and moist air or cool air over the tends to flow downhill along the slopes of land. mountains and hills, eventually converging to form the presence of mountains rivers. This natural process is known as runoff. seasons Pathways of Runoff (Streams) 4. Sublimation Sublimation is the process of a solid (especially snow or ice) turning into a gas (water vapor) without becoming liquid. It usually occurs as a result of dry winds and low humidity. When it rains, the water that does not soak into the ground or being absorbed by plants begins to flow Occurrence in the Water Cycle across the land surface. This extra water collects Sublimation is the process by which water and forms little channels known as rills, which transitions directly from a solid (ice) to a eventually connect to form bigger channels known gas (water vapor) without going through as streams. the liquid phase. It occurs when the Pathways of Runoff (Rivers) surface of ice or snow is exposed to dry air with low humidity and temperature conditions below the freezing point of water. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Pathways of Runoff (Rivers)Rivers act as natural Percolation is the process of water moving channels for water to flow from higher elevations to downward through soil or porous materials. It lower elevations. They transport runoff water involves water seeping through the spaces downstream, eventually emptying into bigger between soil particles. bodies of water like lakes, reservoirs, or seas. Importance of Infiltration and Percolation in Pathways of Runoff (Groundwater) Groundwater Recharge Infiltration Channel Management Some of the runoff water infiltrates into the ground, percolating through the soil and rock layers. This water accumulates in underground reservoirs Infiltration and percolation are vital processes for called aquifers. groundwater recharge, providing a constant supply Pathways of Runoff (Snowmelt) of water for a variety of uses. Water may penetrate the soil through infiltration, while percolation allows it to travel downward through soil layers. 9. Transpiration Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates into the atmosphere through plants. Precipitation falls as snow in cold climatic zones throughout the winter. The piled snow begins to melt as temperatures increase, releasing water into During transpiration, plants absorb water and the ecosystem. nutrients from the underground through their roots. 7. Infiltration Some of this water is then released through When rainwater seeps specialized structures called stomata, located on into the ground, it the underside of the leaves. undergoes infiltration, Influence of Environmental Factors on with the absorption level Transpiration Rates depending on the type a. Temperature of material it permeates. In general, higher temperatures increase transpiration rates. As temperatures rise, water molecules within plants gain energy and evaporate 8. Percolation faster, resulting in increased transpiration. b. Humidity GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 High humidity reduces transpiration because the CONCLUSION air already holds a substantial amount of moisture, Summary of Important Key Points leading to a lower concentration gradient between Water is essential for all forms of life and the plant and the surrounding atmosphere. plays a vital role in sustaining life on Earth. c. Light Intensity The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is The amount of light influences the opening and the continuous movement of water on shutting of stomata, or small holes on plant leaves. Earth through processes like evaporation, d. Soil Moisture condensation, precipitation, infiltration, The availability of water in the soil has a direct percolation, transpiration, and runoff. influence on transpiration. Plants may limit Evaporation is the process by which water transpiration rates to preserve water when soil turns into vapor and rises into the moisture is low. Plants that are well-watered have atmosphere. Factors such as temperature, greater transpiration rates. surface area, humidity, and wind speed influence the rate of evaporation. Impact of Human Activities on the Water Cycle Condensation occurs when water vapor Humans have a great impact on the water cools and transitions back into liquid form. cycle, but sadly mostly not great impacts activities It leads to the formation of clouds, fog, like damming rivers for hydroelectricity, using water mist, or frost depending on specific for farming, deforestation, and the burning of fossil conditions. Temperature and humidity fuels disrupt the water cycle. play important roles in condensation. Precipitation refers to any form of liquid or Effects of Climate Change on the Water Cycle frozen water that falls from the A. Increased Evaporation atmosphere to the Earth's surface. It includes rain, snow, sleet, and hail. Prevailing winds, mountains, and seasons influence precipitation patterns. Infiltration is the process of water seeping into the ground from the surface. Percolation is the downward movement of water through soil or permeable rock Rising temperatures increase evaporation rates, layers. These processes replenish resulting in more water vapor in the atmosphere. groundwater and contribute to the water B. Changes in Precipitation Patterns cycle. Climate change affects the distribution, intensity, Transpiration is the release of water and frequency of precipitation events, causing vapor from plants through their leaves. It is changes in rainfall patterns and increasing the an important part of the water cycle as it chance of extreme weather events like droughts contributes to the moisture in the and heavy rain. atmosphere. C. Melting Glaciers and Ice Caps Runoff is the flow of water across the Higher temperatures cause the melting of glaciers Earth's surface due to gravity. It can form and ice caps, contributing to rising sea levels and rivers, streams, and eventually reaches altering freshwater availability in certain regions. bodies of water like lakes and oceans. D. Increased Water Stress Snowmelt also contributes to runoff. Climate change worsens water shortages in arid and semi-arid countries, harming agriculture, ecosystems, and human water supply. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Importance of Ongoing Research and Understanding of the Water Cycle A. Water Resource Management Ongoing research on the water cycle helps in managing water resources effectively by understanding precipitation patterns, evaporation rates, and runoff. This knowledge is crucial for allocating water, managing reservoirs, and mitigating drought. B. Climate Prediction and Weather Forecasting Understanding the water cycle improves climate prediction and weather forecasting by studying interactions between water vapor, clouds, and atmospheric conditions. C. Ecosystem Health and Biodiversity Research on the water cycle helps assess the impact of changing precipitation patterns and temperature on ecosystems. It aids in understanding ecosystem resilience to climate change, identifying vulnerable habitats, and developing conservation strategies. D. Water Quality and Pollution Management By studying the processes of the Water Cycle, researchers identify sources of pollution and develop strategies for water quality management. E. Sustainable Water Utilization Research on the water cycle informs strategies for optimizing water use in agriculture, industry, and households. Encouragement For Individual and Collective Actions to Protect and Conserve Water Resources Raise awareness and provide education about the importance of water conservation and the consequences of water scarcity. Implement policies and regulations that promote water-saving practices and technologies. Offer economic incentives such as pricing structures and subsidies to motivate water conservation. Engage communities through programs and events that encourage active participation in water conservation efforts. Embrace technological advancements that enable efficient water use and conservation. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 TERRESTRIAL BIOMES decaying organic matter is found on its soil. Worldwide (2) Nutrient deficit Distribution of (3) Filled with Oxisol and Utisol (gives soil Terrestrial its color) Biomes Flora: Stratified into four layers: This map shows i. Emergent Layer the locations of - topmost layer Earth’s major - most sunlight caught by trees terrestrial 40m tall biomes. ii. Canopy Layer - 30m tall FORESTS - Branches are home to epiphytes An area that is filled with trees and vines (lianas) and Supports many of lifeforms organisms that seek better Provides homes for wildlife among other lighting along tree tops. organisms iii. Understory A vital natural resource for humans. - Shaded from the sun - Inhabited by young trees and herbaceous plants that tolerate light Congo iv. Forest Floor Basin - Most sunlight deficit layer Forest receiving only 2% *Bromeliads, Buttress Roots, Carnivorous Plants, i.e pitcher plants - Variants of plants that are rare in temperate forests are Amazon usually found here. Rainforest - Adapts to ground - level competition by growing upon the branches of other plants,or even strangling large trees - Other plants developed this Three types: nature to feed off the air itself. 1. Tropical Rainforests These plants are called “air 2. Temperate Forests roots.” 3. Taiga Fauna: - Generally populated by BIOMES insects such as butterflies, 1. Tropical Rainforests beetles, arachnids. - Are hot, moist biomes found near - Some animals reside within the Earth’s equator different strata of the - Usually take root on tropical uplands rainforest: and lowlands situated around the >Birds – on top of canopy trees equator. >Large Animals – forest floor Climate: Dry and Rainy season - Animals hide under rocks, Temperature: 34°C to 20°C burrows and leaves. Precipitation: 125 cm to 660 cm - Some would camouflage themselves Type of Soil: (1) Due to being subjected to weathering, only a thin layer of GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Flora: - Vegetation exists in several layers. - Deciduous trees as seasons change. - It is stratified into: 1. Trees Stratum 2. Sapling Layer 3. Shrub Layer or Understory 4. Fourth Layer or the Herb 5. Fifth Layer or the Ground Zone Fauna: - Various insects and spiders, wolves, foxes, bears, coyotes, bobcats, mountain lions, eagles, rabbits, deer, skunks, squirrels, raccoons, moose, snakes and hummingbirds - Animals deal with lack of food through: - Hibernation - Storing Food - Burrowing - Migration - Other animals have adapted through camouflage BIOMES: BIOMES: 2. Temperate Forest - Regions with high levels of precipitation, humidity, and a variety of deciduous trees. Climate: Have a wide range of temperatures that correlate with distinctive seasons. Temperature: 10°C.Summer– 21°C Winter –below 0°C. Precipitation: 75-150cm Type of Soil: Consists of alfisols. - moderately leached soils - high fertility GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 circumpolar forested regions. Climate: Coldness is the dominant climactic factor Temperature: A few degrees celsius above freezing to -10°C Precipitation: 30-50 cm Type of Soil: - Taiga conifer litter is highly acidic - Soils of more humid and southern taiga are highly leached spodosols. Flora: - Dominated by scotch pine. - Others are: - Spruce (Picea abies) - Sukaczev larch (Larix sukaczewii) - Gray (Betula populifolia) - White Birch (B. Pendula) - Siberian Larch (Larix sibirica) - Siberian fir (Abies sibirica) - Chosenia (Chosenia arbutifolia) - Siberian stone (Pinus sibirica) - Asian spruce Fauna: - Snowshoe hare and lynx - Most animals are well adapted to the cold and survive easily with enough food to maintain energy balance through the winter. DESERT Formed anywhere there is little water Any large, extremely dry area of land with sparse vegetation Deserts are further classified Into: 1. Hot & Dry 3. Taiga 2. Semi-Arid - Also called boreal (northern) forest, 3. Coastal biome (major life zone) of vegetation 4. Cold composed primarily of cone-bearing needle-leaved or scale-leaved evergreen trees found in northern GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 1. Hot & Dry - High temperature during the day - Low temperature during the evening Climate: Seasons are generally warm throughout the year Temperature: Hot-month average temperatures are normally between 29°C and 35°C and midday readings of 43- 46°C out to forage Precipitation: 1.5 cm at dusk, dawn or at night, when the desert Type of Soil: is cooler. - Coarse-textured, shallow, rocky or gravely 2. Semi-Arid with good drainage and no subsurface - Almost similar to hot and dry deserts water - Do not get quite as hot in the day and not Flora: as cool during the night - Ground-hugging shrubs and short woody Climate: trees - Summers are moderately long and dry - Yuccas, ocotillo, turpentine bush, prickly - Winters bring low concentrations of pears, false mesquite, sotol, ephedras, rainfall agaves, and brittlebush Temperature: Summer temperatures - Plant leaves are replete with water- usually average between 21-27°C. It conserving characteristics - Tend to be small, thick and covered with normally does not go above 38° C and thick cuticle (outer layer) evening temperatures are cool, at around - In cacti, the leaves are much reduced (to 10° C. spines) and photosynthetic activity is Precipitation: 2-4 cm reduced to the stems. Type of Soil: - Some plants open their stomata at night - Range from sandy and fine- textured when evaporation rates are lowest. to loose rock fragments, gravel or sand Fauna: - Low salt concentration - Include small nocturnal carnivores - In upper bajada (lower slopes) soil is - Dominant animals are burrowers and coarse-textured, rocky, well-drained kangaroo rats and partly laid by rock bench - Insects, arachnids, reptiles and birds - Lower bajada (bottom land) the soil - The animals stay inactive in protective is sandy and fine-textured, often with hideaways during the hot day and come “caliche hardpan” - No subsurface water Flora: - Creosote bush, bur sage (Franseria dumosa or F. deltoidea), white thorn, cat claw, mesquite, brittle bushes (Encelia farinosa), lyciums, and jujube - Plants' spiny nature provides protection and enough shade to reduce transpiration. - Many plants have silvery or glossy GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 leaves, allowing them to reflect more and large root systems for radiant energy. trapping moisture Fauna: - These adaptations help in survival in the - Animals have similar habitats as in hot harsh coastal desert climate for plants and dry desert. like black sage, salt bushes, and rice - During the day, insects move around grass. twigs to stay on shady side - Jack rabbits follow moving shadow of Fauna: cactus or shrub - Coyotes are a common occupant of - Many animals find protection in these deserts. These animals are underground burrows where they are nocturnal and have burrowing tendencies insulated from both heat and aridity. - Birds and reptiles lay eggs that remain dormant until conditions are more bearable. 3. Coastal - More hospitable compared to other types of desert 4. Cold - Major coastal deserts are found along - Located in the temperate zones of the coastlines near large water bodies, earth, where the temperatures are cooler especially oceans. than the tropics but warmer than the polar Climate: Have moderately brief winter regions and summer seasons Climate: Long, cold winters and snowfall Temperature: Winter (–5°C and and short summers with little precipitation below) and Summer (–13°C to 24°C) Temperature: Winter (-2°C to 4°C) and Precipitation: 13 cm Summer (21°C to 26°C) Type of Soil: Have more porous soils Precipitation: 15-26 cm characterized by a moderate texture Type of Soil: Heavy, relatively porous soil and a moderate salt content with a lot of silt and salt, good drainage Flora: to leach out most of the salt - Plants have thick fleshy leaves Flora: and stems for storing nutrients - Plant height can 15 cm and 122 cm GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 depending upon their leaves TUNDRA - Most shed their leaves (deciduous) and finnish word "tunturia “ that means treeless have spiny leaves FURTHER CLASSIFIED INTO: - Ground covers are found in areas 1. Arctic such as Torgeson Island, Antarctica 2. Alphine and cover much of the ground, whereas in other areas the plants are found quite apart from each other. - Cold deserts include grasses, shadscale and camel’s thorn. Fauna: - Deer inhabit some of these areas only in winter - Small mammals such as kangaroo rats, kangaroo mice, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, antelope, ground squirrels, badger, kit fox and coyote as well as several lizards all dig burrows 1. Arctic - Gazelles, jack rabbits, gerbils, -encircles the North pole, extending southward saiga antelope, wolves, to the coniferous forest. sidewinder, and viper snakes Climate: Cold/Dry - Desert tortoises, lizards are active in Temperature: the early morning (fossorial) and who WInter: -34° C to -45° C seek shelter during the hottest part of Summer: 3° C to 12° C the day, either in burrows or in the Precipitation: 15 –25 cm shade of plants Type of Soil: Permafrost - Ground that has frosted. - Composed of rocks, soil, sediments and varying amounts of ice that bind the elements together. Flora: Lichen - Combination of Algae and Fungus Low Shrubs, Sedges, reindeer mosses, liverworts and grasses Plants need to have the following to survive: - Anti-freezing chemical - Specialized Root - Transpiration Limit - Growing Together Fauna: Harlequin Duck -Migrates to survive Arctic Fox GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Arctic Fox-Round compact body minimizes the Flora: surface that is exposed to cold air. Short legs, Bristlecone Pine muzzle and ears conserves heat. - Has long life and grow slowly Bear Grass Herbivorous Mammals-Lemmings, voles - grows close to the ground to absorb Carnivorous Mammals- Arctic Foxes, wolves and warmth that the soil receives from the polar bears sunlight Migratory bird-Ravens, snow buntings, falcons, Tussock Grasses, Dwarf loons, sandpipers, terns, snow birds and various - trees, small-leafed shrubs and heaths species of gulls. Plants need to have the following to survive: Fish-Cod, flatfish, salmon and trout - Anti-freezing chemical - Specialized Root System For animals to survive they do the either of the - Transpiration Limit following: - Growing close to the ground -Migration -Hibernation Fauna: Yellow-bellied Marmots -Hibernates for 8 months Pikas-Hides from weather under rocks in the boulder fields. Mammals-Mountain Goats, sheep, elk Birds- grouselike birds Insects-Sprigtail,beetles, grasshoppers, butterflies For animals to survive they do the following: - Migration - Hibernation - Hides 2. Alphine GRASSLAND Climate: Cold/Dry characterized by large, rolling terrain of Temperature: extensive grasses, flowers and herbs rather than large shrubs or trees Average Temp. of 8.3 ° C in a year Winter expanding across millions of square miles. Coldest is -5.5 ° C Normally situated between a desert and a Summer 4.5 ° C to 15.5 ° C forest and is called a transitional biome. Precipitation: 30 cm Amount of rainfall/precipitation influences Type of Soil: the height of grassland vegetation. Inceptisol Droughts and wildfires play a big role to - soil of an order compromising freely the vegetation and diversity of plants draining soils in which the formation of TWO MAJOR DIVISIONS distinct horizons is not far advanced. 1. Tropical Spodosol 2. Temperate - soils form in sandy materials under climates where large amount of water infiltrate into the soil one or more times of the year. GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 BIOMES: Tropical - Also called Savanna - features vast open spaces consisting of scattered small shrubs and trees. - features taller and more robust grass types because of the year round growing season. - The variety of trees depends upon its geographic location - Cover much of Africa as well as large areas of Australia, South America, and India. Climate: Hot climate (summer) with two distinct seasons: dry and rainy Temperature: 20°C- 30°C Precipitation: 50.8-127 cm Type of Soil: porous - has only a thin layer of humus Flora: - Grasses and small trees such has elephant grass, bermuda grass, river bushwillow, manketti tree, acacia and baobab tree (which only produces leaves during rainy season) - Plants developed long taproots constituting hydrophilic root system that is able to extend deeper in the soil in search for water., trunks that are able to store water, thick and strong barks to resist wild and human-instigated fires. Fauna: - Grazing animals and predators such as giraffe, buffalo, kangaroo, ground squirrel, moles, lion, cheetah, hyena, and elephants. - Reproduce on rainy seasons and migrate TEMPERATE elsewhere for food and water on dry season - features a vast open space dominated by - forms burrow to avoid predation and grass where trees and shrubs are absent. desiccation Have two types: Prairie- grassland with tall grasses Steppe-grassland with short grasses Climate: have hot summers and cold winters with two seasons: growing and dormant Temperature: 38°C (summer) and as low as - 40°C (winter) GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Precipitation: 50.8 - 88.9 cm CHAPARRAL Type of Soil: - Chaparral is a Spanish word for place of - deep, dark, fertile loam soil evergreens scrub oak Flora: - You can find a variety of terrain in this - grasses dominate the vegetation while trees biome like rock hills, flat plains, and and shrubs are rarely present. Examples are: mountain slopes. Blue-eyed grass, purple needlegrass, buffalo Climate: Experience mild winter as well as hot, dry grass, foxtail, sunflowers summers. - when wildfires occur, the root portions of grasses survive to sprout again Temperature: - Extensive root systems enable grasses to Winter – 10-12 °C to 30-40°C absorb moisture deeper on the Grounds Summer – can surpass 100°C - grasses have deep, massive root systems that Found in the mid-latitude climate, average take hold in the soil. This allows the grasses to temperature in these areas is 18°C remain firmly rooted in the ground to reduce Precipitation: 5 - 25 cm erosion and to conserve water. Type of Soil: Fauna: - Thin and rocky - Home for large herbivores such as bison, - Nutrient poor zebra, gazelle, rhinoceros and carnivores like - Highly susceptible to erosion lion and Wolves - Usually rich in iron oxides (cinnamon color) - some animals have flattopped teeth and - Contains little clay and lacks organic material digestive systems especially adapted to feed - Takes long for fertile soil to form on grass. Flora: - Short, dense, scrubby vegetation - the color of animals blends in with the plant - Drought resistant life, which helps them hide or camouflage from - Plants in chaparral have developed thick predators waxy leaves *Many plants have the ability to - some animals have front legs and paws lose leaves (drought deciduous plants) during adapted to dig burrows to escape fires or the summer predators - Has hard, small leaves - Leaves made from flammable materials. - large tap roots to save water - Have seeds that lay dormant during normal conditions but during a fire, seed casing cracks open and blooms. - Ex. Poison Oak, Yucca Wiple, Shrubs, Toyon, Chamise, Trees, and Cacti. - Chamise plant – seeds require fire to germinate, grows with little water on hard, rocky soil and is an excellent erosioncontrol - plant GEED 20113: People and Earth’s Ecosystem Lecture Notes A.Y. 24-25 Fauna: - Animals learned to adapt to very hot climates - Animals are usually active at night - Animals are mainly desert/grassland types. - Animals have adapted to sparse, rough terrain Ex. Acorn woodpeckers, Jack rabbits, Mule deer, Coyotes, Alligator Lizards, Praying Mantis, Ladybugs, Honeybees, Coyotes