PDECE 5201 PDF.pdf

PDEC201: CONCEPT OF OBSERVATION/ ASSESSMENT IN ECCE 2 UNITS MRS. EKWERIKE C.O. COURSE OUTLINE 1. Observation and Assessing Young Children 2. Importance of Child’s Observation 3. Approaches to Observation 4. Planning for Observation 5. Objective versus Subjective Observation 6. Methods of Obser...

PDEC201: CONCEPT OF OBSERVATION/ ASSESSMENT IN ECCE 2 UNITS MRS. EKWERIKE C.O. COURSE OUTLINE 1. Observation and Assessing Young Children 2. Importance of Child’s Observation 3. Approaches to Observation 4. Planning for Observation 5. Objective versus Subjective Observation 6. Methods of Observations a. Anecdotal Records b. Running Records c. Specimen Records d. Time Sampling Records e. Event Sampling Records f. Checklists g. Ranking Scales 7. Ethical Guidelines when Observing Children 8. Common Mistakes to Avoid when Writing Observation 9. Observation and Documentation Do’s and Don’ts 10. Definition and Purposes of assessment 11. Assessment Tools a. Observational Tools b. Checklists c. Rating Scales d. Shadow Studies e. Standardized tests E.g. screening tests, development tests, intelligence tests, readiness tests. 12. Assessment Tools / Methods of Assessment a. Interview and presentation of task to an individual or group b. Task Analysis c. Portfolio Assessment d. Rubrics e. Technology-Based Assessment f. Standardized Tests g. Case Study h. Reflective log 13. Characteristics of Quality Child Assessment 14. Differences between Assessment and Evaluation 15. Guidelines for Assessment OBSERVATION AND ASSESSING YOUNG CHILDREN Introduction To provide children with a safe and nurturing learning environment and to maintain program effectiveness, teachers must incorporate observation, documentation and assessment into their daily routines. To truly be effective, teachers must develop skills and strategies that are grounded in best practices. In this course, we will be presented with information that highlights how observation and documentation can be used as a key strategy to ensure intentional teaching for children. We will also examine the initial steps to take to becoming a skilled observer, reflect on how to objectively document the interactions that you see and the conversations that you hear. It is important to note that becoming a skilled observer takes time and practice, and that learning how to incorporate observation, documentation and assessment into your regular routines and daily duties requires some thoughtful consideration. OBSERVATION AND ROLES OF OBSERVATION Observation is defined as “the process of gathering information about objects and events using senses of sight, smell, sound, touch and taste, noticing specific details or phenomena that ordinarily might be overlooked” (CDE, 2016 p. 64). The Role of Observation  Observations are conducted every day in early childhood classroom environments.  Teachers are constantly surveying the environment and completing safety checks to make sure the equipment and materials are safe for the children to use.  Teachers also perform daily health screenings to ensure their children are healthy enough to participate in program activities.  Beyond the standard safety check and health screening, teachers have many other important tasks and duties that they must do to maintain an excellent classroom environment.  Intentional teachers use their observations to plan and implement curriculum, set up engaging learning environments, monitor the children’s social interactions, track behaviours, communicate with families, and assess each child’s progress and development.  Essentially, observations help teachers be more accountable. By conducting regular observations intentional teachers can:  Evaluate program effectiveness  Evaluate teacher effectiveness  Make improvements to ensure quality practices  Plan and implement developmentally appropriate curriculum  Measure and assess a child’s development  Develop respectful family partnerships  Understand the cultural practices and family structure  Select effective learning strategies to support and accommodate the diverse needs of children  Ensure ethical conduct and professional standards of practice  Teach with confidence   If we want to understand children, we must first watch them and listen to them. Then, we must try to make sense of what we observed and give it meaning.  The role of observation is to provide teachers with information and evidence that they will need to make informed decisions on how to best support the children in their care.  With each observation, you will get a glimpse into a child’s developing mind. Not only will you see a child’s personality emerge, you will also be able to see what a child can do.  As you watch your children, you will see how they solve problems when conflicts arise and how they cope with the stress from being in a group setting. You will learn about their individual needs and their cultural practices.  When you watch children closely, their interests and abilities are revealed. With each observation, you will gain useful insight that will help you become an intentional teacher. CHARACTERISTICS OF A SKILLED OBSERVER To truly observe a child, you must be present, knowledgeable, inquisitive and intentional. With every observation, you will sharpen your skills as you learn how to effectively gather objective evidence and detailed data. Be present: To capture all the individual mannerisms, subtle social nuances, non-verbal body language and dynamic conversations that occur throughout the day you must be attentive, focused and ready to go at any given moment. Children move fast. When we blink, we are bound to miss some little detail or precious moment, that’s a given. Being present takes considerable effort and careful planning. Be knowledgeable: Understanding the core concepts of early childhood education is extremely important if you are to set reasonable expectations and plan developmentally appropriate learning experiences. Familiarizing yourself with child development theories will help you understand and appreciate why children do what they do. Learning about the key principles in early care and education will provide you with a solid foundation and a wide range of instructional strategies to support a child’s development. Be inquisitive: Think of yourself as a researcher. Your primary mission is to investigate the children in your care by routinely gathering evidence, using a variety of observation methods and tools. As a good researcher you will need to ask some thoughtful questions. These questions will guide you as you plan purposeful observations and as you select your method of observation. Here are some sample questions you may ask yourself: What activities interest Max? How many times did Stevie hit today? What skills did Hazel master today with this activity, and what skills need further support? How long did Zoey stay engaged while playing in the sandbox? What milestones will this activity support? By asking thoughtful questions, you will learn more about the children in your care and you will do a better job at supporting each child’s individual needs. Rather than fixating on a child’s behaviour, in time you will begin using focused observations to try and figure out the reasons why a child acts the way they do. Be intentional: As you organize learning experiences, set up the classroom and outside environment, assess children’s developmental progress, engage in activities, and interact with your children and families – you must have a thoughtful plan of action in place. “Intentional teaching means that everything you do as a teacher has a specific goal and purpose” (Gordon & Browne, 2016 p. 103). Even as spontaneous situations arise, intentional teachers must make the most of teachable moments. Intentional teachers conduct regular observations and gather objective documentation data to be accountable for the actions they take, the plans they generate and the assessments they make. APPROACHES TO OBSERVATION Observations can be spontaneous or planned. Spontaneous observations occur all the time. Whether teachers are actively engaged with their children during an activity or in the background cleaning up after an activity, teachers have numerous opportunities to see and hear some wonderful developments as they randomly occur. According to Piaget, children require long uninterrupted periods of play and exploration so that they can discover things for themselves. If we truly believe that children are capable of socializing, problem solving, and creating complex systems with rules, then we can successfully use spontaneous observations to capture a child’s development as it unfolds naturally. As intentional teachers, we can also appreciate when teachable moments arise unexpectedly. These golden moments are noteworthy as well. For example, as we witness a child attempting to master a milestone, we may provide some verbal support or guidance to scaffold the child’s learning. For example, when Adrian is becoming frustrated with not being able to get a piece of his puzzle to fit, a teacher might ask, “What happens when you turn the piece around?” During spontaneous situations, we must remember to simultaneously make mental notes so that we can later write down and reflect on a more formal plan of action that can be later used to help the child achieve their developmental goals. Let’s review the advantages and disadvantages associated of spontaneous observations: Advantages: Being in the moment allows you to enjoy your children, and children appreciate your presence. When you are present, you can celebrate a child’s success or provide positive reinforcements to help them master major milestones. While being spontaneous, you can focus on the child’s interests and pose thoughtful questions to extend and enrich their learning experience. When a teacher keeps a low profile, a child is less likely to be self-conscious or nervous. Disadvantages: The longer you wait to document your spontaneous observation evidence, the harder it will be to remain objective and recall the vital details which is important when tracking behaviours or assessing development. Also, the more time that passes, the more difficult it will be to access accurate data. For example, by not documenting the children’s dialogue or capturing their key quotes in a timely manner, you may find it difficult to remember their actual word choices and use of vocabulary which is essential for assessing a child’s expressive language development. Planned or Focused observations: Becoming a skilled observer takes practice. At first you may be slightly overwhelmed with trying to incorporate an official observation time into your already busy schedule. You may struggle with finding that delicate balance between knowing when to interact with your children and realizing when to step back and observe. Once you do observe, you might be surprised by the amount of evidence you have collected on each child. What’s more, you will have to sift through all the evidence and that can be both time consuming and exhausting. Since your time is limited and you cannot possibly observe everything, incorporating a planned observation will help you navigate through your busy day and you will be able to gather more specific evidence PLANNING FOR OBSERVATION: SOME KEY QUESTIONS When should I observe? From the moment a child walks into their classroom until the time they leave, opportunities to learn are occurring. Some observations will happen spontaneously, while others will be scheduled. To see a child’s full potential, you will need to observe at various times throughout the day. For example, some children are slow-to-warm and it may take them some time to get acclimated before they can fully engage and interact with others. If a child is slow -to-warm, the morning drop- off may not be the best time to document their social development. You will want to track them throughout the day, at various times (including transition times and snack/mealtimes), to get a full picture of who they are and what they can do. Where should I observe? Many times, observations are centered around structured, teacher-directed activities. This is, in fact, a perfect time to witness what major milestones a child has mastered. However, observing a child while they are exploring in the dramatic play area (inside) or while they are in the sandbox area (outside) can prove to be just as enlightening. During child-directed play or open exploration, you will no doubt be able to document many of the developmental skills as suggested in the DRDP or Rating Scales, especially how they communicate, cooperate, solve dilemmas and create. Because children can play and learn differently while they are inside as compared to when they are outside, it is necessary to observe in both environments. Likewise, it is important to observe in all activity areas and play spaces. Rating Scales, especially how they communicate, cooperate, solve dilemmas and create. Because children can play and learn differently while they are inside as compared to when they are outside, it is necessary to observe in both environments. Likewise, it is important to observe in all activity areas and play spaces. What observation method should I use? Use a variety of methods to record and document your children. You will want to “try out” several tools and techniques to find your “best” method. Because each tool has a specific purpose or focus, using a variety of methods will provide you with sound documentation data to better understand the whole child’s development. Who should I observe? You will want to observe each child as individuals, and you will want to track group interactions. Becoming aware of who is in your class is necessary if you are going to create a caring classroom community and respectful learning environment. Look for those who are the leaders in your group; find out who needs more one-to-one support and who are your helpers; watch for who plays with who. This insight can help you organize peer scaffolding opportunities which can free up some of your time. As a gentle reminder, sometimes we connect with certain children for one reason or another, and other times a child may challenge us. Either way we need to regularly observe each child with an open mind and an open heart, and we need to look at children with a clear lens that is free of bias. Each child needs your attention; each child has unique gifts; and each child needs your support. What is the focus of my observation, what am I looking for? With focused observations, there usually is a specific goal in mind. For example, you might want to know what milestones a child has mastered. For that, you would use a developmental checklist to “check-off” all the skills the child was observed doing. Maybe you want to learn what the child’s interests are and what they like to play with. For that, you can use a frequency count to tally up all the areas and activities the child used during that observation. Keep in mind that you can observe several skills and competencies across multiple domains during one observation. For example, one day you might set out a math activity and the children are expected to create patterns using colourful beads and pipe cleaners, While they work and play, you can listen to the children’s conversations as they describe the patterns they are making; and you can note their fine motor development based on how well they string the beads onto the pipe cleaner; you can also see how they shared space and materials with their peers. Although this was a math activity, many other areas of development can be observed. IMPORTANCE OF OBSERVATION IN EARLY CHILDHOOD Observation in childcare is vital in discovering and having a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of each child. It is an important element in the creation of an accurate and actionable child observation report, which will, in turn, help tailor the childcare environment to further facilitate learning. Exploration and learning are the cornerstones of early childhood education, and a child observation report will help in meeting the developmental requirements of preschool children and other young learners. For child educators and care providers, child observation may be the simplest and most effective way to assess young children’s development. Observation in childcare begins with observing child behaviour, learning progress, and interaction with others and unfamiliar situations. This information is later used to determine ways to improve the learning environment. OBJECTIVE VERSUS SUBJECTIVE OBSERVATION EVIDENCE  Intentional teachers must learn how to write objective observations. As you observe, it is best to write down all that you see and hear, and report just the facts. It takes practice to learn how to separate facts from opinions. Here are some helpful tips for you to review: Objective Observations Subjective Observation Objective observations are based on what we Subjective observations are often influenced by observed using our senses, we record exactly our past events, personal experiences and what we see, hear, taste, touch, and smell opinions, and can be biased based on our cultural backgrounds Objective information is based on the facts we Subjective information is based on our opinions, gather. If we don’t see it, we don’t report it. We assumptions, personal beliefs, prejudice report only details and provide vivid descriptions feelings or can be based on suspicions, rumours and guesses Results are more likely to be valid and reliable Results are often inconsistent and vary from from child to child child to child Objective Terms that can be Used: Seems to be; Subjective Words to Avoid: Just; because; but; Appears to always, never; can’t; I think; happy, smart, helpful, pretty, angry, shy, likes, loves, hates, sad Topic 6: Methods of Observation in Early Childhood Care and Education Observation is a critical tool in early childhood care and education, enabling educators to understand children's development, interests, and needs. Various methods of observation are used to gather comprehensive and insightful information. These methods that provide valuable insights into children's progress and needs. 1. Anecdotal Records: This is a detailed narrative of a child's behaviour or a specific event, recorded as they occur. The purpose is to capture specific behaviours, interactions, or milestones over time. Example: "Today, during playtime, Sarah initiated a game of building blocks with two peers and communicated her ideas clearly." 2. Checklists: Structured lists of behaviours or skills that educators mark as observed or not observed. It provides a quick, standardized way to track developmental milestones or specific behaviours. Example: "Checklist for language development: Uses at least 50 words, uses two- word phrases, and understands simple instructions." 3. Running Records: Continuous, real-time documentation of a child's activities, behaviours, and interactions. It captures a child's behaviour patterns and interactions in a natural setting. Example: "During outdoor play, Liam was observed climbing the jungle gym and interacting positively with peers." 4. Event Sampling: Focused observation on specific behaviours or events of interest. It gives insights into behaviours or skills in various contexts. Example: "Observing how children interact during mealtime to understand their social skills and manners." 5. Time Sampling: Observing and recording behaviours within predetermined time intervals. It helps to understand the frequency and duration of specific behaviours or activities. Example: "Every 10 minutes, note whether children are engaged in solitary play, parallel play, or group activities." 6. Ranking Scale: A ranking scale is a method of observation where educators assign numerical or descriptive rankings to behaviours, skills, or characteristics based on predetermined criteria. It is used to evaluate the proficiency or frequency of specific behaviours or skills, track changes and improvements over time and tailor educational approaches to meet each child's unique needs. Example: Using a 1-5 scale to rank a child's social interaction skills during group activities: o 1: Rarely engages with peers. o 3: Sometimes interacts with peers but prefers solitary activities. o 5: Actively engages with peers, initiates play, and shares toys. 7. Specimen Records: Specimen records involve collecting and documenting examples or samples of children's work, behaviours, or achievements over time. It preserves evidence of children's learning experiences and progress, analyses patterns, trends, and developmental milestones and shares observations with parents, caregivers, and other stakeholders. Examples of Specimens: o Artwork: Drawings, paintings, or sculptures that demonstrate creative expression and fine motor skills. o Writing Samples: Letters, words, or sentences showing literacy development. o Problem-Solving Tasks: Puzzles, building blocks, or collaborative projects showcasing cognitive abilities. 8. Photo and Video Documentation: Using photos or videos to record and analyse children's behaviours and interactions. It provides visual evidence and insights into children's development and learning experiences. Example: "Captured a video of Emma's storytelling during circle time to assess her language development and storytelling skills." 9. Child and Teacher Interviews: Conversations with children or teachers to gather their perspectives, thoughts, and feelings. It gives insights into children's interests, preferences, and understanding. Example: "Interviewed James to understand his favourite activities and what he enjoys most about school." 10. Parent Surveys and Input: Gathering information from parents regarding their child's behaviors, interests, and development. It provides a holistic view of a child's development across different environments. Example: "Sent out a survey to parents to understand their observations of Sarah's behaviour at home and her interests outside of school." Considerations for Effective Observation:  Objective and Non-biased: Ensure observations are factual and free from personal interpretations or biases.  Consistency: Establish regular observation routines to track progress and changes over time.  Contextual Understanding: Consider the environment and social dynamics influencing children's behaviours.  Privacy and Consent: Respect privacy and obtain consent when using photos or videos for documentation. Topic 7: Ethical guidelines when observing children Observation remains one of the best ways of knowing, understanding, as well as predicting children. It is an important tool for teachers, parents, and care givers to carry out their work effectively. Thus, it behoves on teachers to observe, record, and capture essential moments in a child’s development. The evidence and objects that are gathered are then used to plan curriculum and assess development. Although we have highlighted the importance of gathering work samples and observation evidence as a key element to be an intentional teacher, we must also consider the perspective of the child. In most classrooms, a typical day includes teachers grabbing their cameras to take snapshots of the children in their care so that they will have ample documentation. Consider this - does the teacher’s presence change the context of the child’s experience? Does the thought of being monitored make the child behave any differently? How does the child feel about having their picture taken? Are teachers becoming overly concerned about capturing children in precious moments, rather than being engaged in teachable moments? As a “student” who is learning to observe and document a child’s development, the following guidelines are germane towards effective observation:  Take precaution and ensure you maintain confidentiality and privacy.   Remember to ask if it is OK to take photographs of children and their work.  Understand that children have the right not to take part in activities.  Be respectful and keep a reasonable amount of space between you and the child so as not to interfere with their play and learning.  Be attuned to children’s body language, temperament, and styles of communication.  See each child as a unique individual who has his/her own perspective, set of feelings, interests, and way of socializing, along with her/his own cultural context, belief system, and values.  Be upfront and inform children about the purpose of your observation visit if you are approached.  Share information with the child about what you have observed when appropriate.  Write quotes down just as they were said without adding context, or trying to rationalize what the child may have meant.  Be aware that photos and observation data should be collected in a non-intrusive manner.  Ensure that observation evidence and photos are used only for the purposes intended.  Handle photos and data with care and sensitivity, and always store information securely.  Realize that a child’s reactions, behaviours, and conversations may not be what you expect and therefore you should refrain from being judgmental or tainted by your cultural biases. By following these guidelines, you are providing the children you observe with the respect they deserve while ensuring their dignity and safety. The centres and programs where you are observing are trusting you to act with integrity while you are at their site observing their children. Lastly, families will appreciate that you have their child’s best interest at heart. Topic 8: Common Mistakes to Avoid When Writing Observation Report When writing observations for children, it is essential to be mindful of certain common mistakes that can compromise the accuracy and effectiveness of the observations. Avoiding these mistakes will help ensure that your observations provide valuable insights into children's development and learning. Here are some common mistakes to avoid: 1. Bias and Subjectivity: It is crucial to maintain objectivity and avoid injecting personal biases into your observations. Be mindful of your own beliefs, assumptions, and expectations, as they can influence how you interpret children's behaviours and actions. Strive to describe what you observe rather than making assumptions or judgments based on personal opinions. 2. Overgeneralization: Avoid making broad or sweeping statements based on limited observations. Recognize that children's behaviours can vary in different contexts and  situations. Instead, focus on specific instances and provide detailed descriptions to paint an accurate picture of the child's abilities and behaviours. 3. Lack of Specificity: Vague and general descriptions limit the usefulness of observations. Be specific and provide detailed information about what the child is doing, saying, or demonstrating. Include specific examples, actions, and behaviours that illustrate the child's skills, knowledge, and interactions. This specificity helps create a more accurate and informative observation. 4. Neglecting Context: Observations should always be made within the appropriate context. Consider the environment, social interactions, and cultural factors that may influence the child's behaviour. Contextual information helps provide a more comprehensive understanding of the child's actions and allows for more accurate interpretation and analysis. 5. Neglecting Developmental Norms: Familiarize yourself with typical developmental milestones and norms for the age group you are observing. This knowledge will help you distinguish between typical and atypical behaviours and understand what to expect at different stages of development. Avoid making judgments solely based on chronological age without considering individual differences and the range of development within that age group. 6. Lack of Documentation: Accurate documentation is essential for maintaining the integrity of observations. Ensure that you record observations in a timely manner, providing relevant details and including dates and times. Avoid relying solely on memory, as it can lead to inaccuracies and omissions. Use tools such as checklists, anecdotal notes, or digital platforms to support consistent and organized documentation. 7. Neglecting Strengths: While it's important to identify areas for improvement, do not solely focus on weaknesses or challenges. Recognize and celebrate the child's strengths, talents, and accomplishments in your observations. Highlighting strengths not only provides a more balanced perspective but also supports the child's self-esteem and motivation for further growth. 8. Lack of Collaboration: Observations are most effective when there is collaboration and communication among educators, families, and other professionals involved in the child's care and education. Share observations with relevant stakeholders, seek their input, and consider different perspectives. Collaborative observation practices promote a holistic understanding of the child and inform more comprehensive support strategies. 9. Failure to Follow Ethical Guidelines: Adhere to ethical guidelines when conducting and sharing observations. Obtain informed consent from families and ensure the confidentiality and privacy of the child and their information. Use observations for educational purposes only and avoid sharing them inappropriately or without proper authorization. Topic 9: Observation and Documentation Observation Dos and Don’ts Observation Dos Observation Don’ts 1. Note the date, time, setting, 1. Do not interfere or pressure the 2. Note the child (or children) children to perform involved 2. Do not assume or state your 3. Record only the facts – in a opinion while recording evidence concise (to the point) manner 3. Do not record anything you do 4. Record the facts in the order as not see they occur and exactly as you see 4. Do not label behaviours, actions it or feelings 5. Collect vivid details and quotes 5. Avoid using subjective, bias or 6. Use a variety of Observation judgmental terms Methods 6. Avoid using exaggerations and 7. Observe with an open heart, an conditional words. open mind and a clear lens, free 7. Do not summarize information. of bias 8. Avoid using generalizations or 8. Be attentive and alert, and use all vague terms. your senses 9. Note what the child CAN DO rather than what he cannot do 10. Keep a low profile and respect the children’s space while they are playing Topic 10: Definition and purpose of Assessment Assessment is the systematic basis for making inferences about the learning and development of students. It is the process of defining, selecting, designing, collecting, analysing, interpreting, and using information to increase students' learning and development. In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of students. While assessments are often equated with traditional tests – especially the standardized tests developed by testing companies and administered to large populations of students – educators use a diverse array of assessment tools and methods to measure everything from a four-year-olds readiness for kindergarten to a twelfth-grade student’s comprehension of advanced physics. Just as academic lessons have different functions, assessments are typically designed to measure specific elements of learning – e.g., the level of knowledge a student already has about the concept or skill the teacher is planning to teach or the ability to comprehend and analyse different types of texts and readings. Assessments also are used to identify individual student weaknesses and strengths so that educators can provide specialized academic support, educational programming, or social services. In addition, assessments are developed by a wide array of groups and individuals, including teachers, district administrators, universities, private companies, state departments of education, and groups that include a combination of these individuals and institutions. What is the purpose of assessments in education? The purpose of assessments in education is two-fold. It helps to gather relevant information about learners It helps the learners to demonstrate their learning, provide feedback on the errors they've been making, and help provide opportunities to better their performance with each assessment. For the teachers, it works as an excellent tool to figure out if their teaching methodology is working or not. What are the qualities of good assessment? Several attempts to define good assessment have been made. There is a general agreement that good assessment (especially summative) should be:  Valid: measures what it is supposed to measure, at the appropriate level, in the appropriate domains (constructive alignment).  Fair: is non-discriminatory and matches expectations.  Transparent: processes and documentation, including assessment briefing and marking criteria, are clear.  Reliable: assessment is accurate, consistent and repeatable.  Feasible: assessment is practicable in terms of time, resources and student numbers.  Educational impact: assessment results in learning what is important and is authentic and worthwhile. Topic 11: Assessment Tools A. Observational tools are instruments or methods used to systematically observe and collect information about individuals or groups. In the context of early childhood education, observational tools used by educators and caregivers to gather data and  insights about a child's development, behaviours and interactions. These tools help in accessing and planning appropriate learning experiences for children. B. Checklists are simple and straightforward observational tools that involve ticking off specific behaviours or skills that a child exhibits. They are often used to track developmental milestones and skills in different domains, such as cognitive, social- emotional, physical, and language development. C. Rating scales are like checklists except they assess the degree of accomplishment of skill, behaviour, or knowledge instead of just the presence or absence of it (Rashida Banerjee 2016). D. Shadow Studies: Shadowing is exactly what it sounds like- an adult being a child's shadow. An adult (preferably the same adult) is to follow the child everywhere they go, without adjusting their play. The adult should be no more than an arm's reach, giving them constant direct supervision. Shadowing is a great tool for adjusting behaviour problems. We most commonly use this tool when we have a child who is biting, or otherwise trying to hurt their classmates. When do we use shadowing? Anytime we have a behaviour that can hurt that child or another, we look to shadowing. Typically, an issue like biting requires shadowing after 2 incidents. One instance of hitting can be an accident, but 2 instances close together can start a pattern. The sooner we start shadowing and eliminating this behaviour more quickly. We shadow children until they are 2 weeks incident free. Typically, if we see 2 weeks without a behaviour incident, the child has moved through the phase and won’t try again. E. Standardized tests are commonly used as assessment tools in early childhood education to evaluate a child's academic progress and to gather data about their cognitive, social, and emotional development. While there is ongoing debate about the effectiveness and appropriateness of standardized testing for young children, this presentation explores some commonly used tests which includes the Screening Tests, Developmental Tests, Intelligent Tests and Readiness Tests. Topic 12: Methods of Assessment Childhood assessment is a process of gathering information and then using it to plan educational activities that are at a level the child can understand and is able to learn from. Assessment of preschool-age children is very important as it helps us to determine how their development is going and if they are meeting certain critical milestones. It is a crucial part of a high-quality early childhood program. When educators conduct an assessment, they observe a child to get information about what children know and what they can do. A. Interviews and presentation of task to an individual or group: Interviews are widely used method of assessment in various fields, including employment, research, and  academia. They involved a structured or semi-structured conversation between interviewer and interviewee, aiming to gather detailed information, insights, and perspectives. Interviews allow for a deep exploration of topics, adaptation to the interviewee’s responses, and the opportunity to clarify and probe further into answers. They can be tailored to assess specific skills, knowledge, or attributes, making them an effective tool for gaining qualitative data and understanding complex issues. B. Task analysis is a systematic approach to understanding and breaking down complex tasks into smaller, manageable steps. It is commonly used in education and therapy settings to assess and teach new skills to individuals, including young children. When using task analysis for assessment purposes, several methods can be employed. Here are some common approaches: 1. Direct Observation: One of the most straightforward methods of task analysis assessment is direct observation. An assessor observes the child as they perform a task and carefully documents each step and action taken. This method allows for real-time assessment and provides valuable insights into the child's strengths, weaknesses, and areas that may require further instruction. 2. Video Recording: Video recording the child while they engage in a task can be a useful assessment tool. It allows assessors to review the recording multiple times, analyzing each step in detail, and capturing any missed details during direct observation. Video recordings also facilitate collaboration among professionals, as they can be shared and discussed with other team members. 3. Self-Report: Depending on the age and developmental level of the child, self- report can be used as a method of assessment. Through interviews, questionnaires, or self-assessment forms, the child can provide information about their understanding of the task and the steps involved. This method helps assessors gain insights into the child's awareness and metacognitive abilities. 4. Performance-based Assessments: Performance-based assessments involve providing the child with a task-related scenario or problem to solve. This method assesses the child's ability to apply the steps of the task in a real-life context. It can be particularly useful for assessing higher-order thinking skills, problem- solving abilities, and generalization of learned skills. 5. Error Analysis: Error analysis involves closely examining the child's errors or mistakes during task performance. Assessors analyze the types of errors made, their frequency, and the underlying reasons behind them. Error analysis provides insights into specific areas where the child may require additional support or instruction. When using task analysis for assessment, it is important to consider the child's individual needs, developmental level, and any cultural or contextual factors that may influence their performance. Additionally, combining multiple assessment methods can provide a more comprehensive and accurate understanding of the child's abilities, challenges, and progress. C. A portfolio assessment is an individual collection of daily drawings, photographs, writings samples, audiotapes, video recordings and other materials that provide visual and auditory documentation of a child’s strengths.  STEPS ON HOW TO COMPLETE A PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT 1. Identify type of portfolio assessment and supporting rationale. 2. Identify all areas that will be assessed (eg gross motor, literacy, numeracy, fine motor, social). 3. Identify specific questions that will be answered with the portfolio. 4. Provide activities during class time that will allow the teacher to answer the proposed questions. 5. Document child’s performance in the portfolio. 6. Storage of evidence for the portfolio do not compare children”. Instead, they illustrate the child’s best work, building confidence and self-esteem. D. Rubrics are a commonly used method of assessment that provides a structured and standardized way to evaluate performance or achievement in various areas, such as education, work, or creative projects. A rubric is essentially a scoring guide that outlines the criteria and levels of performance for different aspects of a task or assignment. 1. Criteria: A rubric defines the specific criteria or dimensions that will be assessed. These criteria are typically based on the learning objectives or desired outcomes of the task. 2. Levels of Performance: For each criterion, a rubric defines different levels of performance, often using descriptive language or numeric scales. These levels usually range from low to high, indicating varying degrees of proficiency or achievement. 3. Scoring: When assessing a task, evaluators refer to the rubric to determine which level of performance best aligns with the student's work. They assign a score or rating based on the identified level for each criterion. 4. Feedback: Rubrics can also provide feedback to students by highlighting areas of strength and areas that need improvement. Specific feedback helps students understand their performance relative to the criteria and provides guidance for future development. E. Technology – Based Assessment: With the rapid integration of technology in various aspects of education, including assessment, there is a growing interest in exploring the use of technology-based assessment tools in early childhood education. EXAMPLES OF TECHNOLOGY-BASED ASSESSMENT TOOLS: 1. Digital Portfolios: Online platforms or apps that allow educators to collect and document children's work samples, photos, videos, and reflections. They provide a comprehensive view of a child's learning progress over time. 2. Game-Based Assessments: Interactive games and apps designed to assess specific skills such as early literacy, numeracy, or problem-solving. These tools engage children in playful activities while gathering data on their learning. 3. Formative Assessment Apps: Mobile applications that enable educators to assess children's understanding and track progress in real-time. These apps often provide instant feedback and suggestions for instructional interventions. F. Standardized tests in early childhood refer to assessments that are designed to measure the development and skills of young children, typically between the ages of 3 and 8. These tests aim to provide a standardized way of evaluating a child's cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development compared to other children of the same age group.  G. Case Study is a valuable assessment tool that allows educators evaluate student’s understanding and application of knowledge and skills in real world scenario. It involves analyzing and solving a specific problem by applying theoretical concepts and practical knowledge to develop a solution. H. Case study is an effective assessment tool in the following ways: 1. Application of knowledge: This involves a student applying their theoretical knowledge to a practical situation. They must analyze the problem, identify relevant concept and use their understanding to develop solutions or make recommendations. 2. Critical Thinking Skills: This promotes critical thinking skills i.e. students engage in analysis, evaluation and problem solving. They need to assess information, identify relevant facts, consider different perspective and make logical connections. 3. Collaboration and Communication: Case studies often require students to work collaboratively, enhancing their Communication and teamwork skills. They need to share perspectives, discuss ideas challenge assumptions and negotiate solutions. I. A reflective log, also known as a reflective journal or reflective diary, is a written record that captures an individual's thoughts, feelings, and insights about their experiences, observations, or learning process. It serves as a tool for personal reflection and self- assessment, allowing individuals to critically analyze their actions, behaviors, and responses in different situations. Reflective log are commonly used in educational and professional setting to enhance learning development. Topic 13: Characteristics of Quality Child Assessment Quality child assessment plays a crucial role in understanding children's development, identifying their strengths and areas for improvement, and informing educational practices. Here are some key characteristics of quality child assessment: 1. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which an assessment measures what it intends to measure. A quality child assessment should align with the desired learning outcomes and accurately capture children's knowledge, skills, and abilities. It should provide a comprehensive and reliable representation of children's development and learning. 2. Reliability: Reliability relates to the consistency and dependability of assessment results. A quality child assessment should produce consistent outcomes when administered under similar conditions. It should minimize errors and variations in scoring, administration, and interpretation to ensure reliable results that can be trusted and used for decision- making. 3. Authenticity: Authentic assessments provide opportunities for children to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in meaningful, real-world contexts. They go beyond rote  memorization and multiple-choice questions, allowing children to apply their understanding, think critically, and solve authentic problems. Authentic assessments capture children's abilities in a manner that reflects the complexity of real-life situations. 4. Developmentally Appropriate: Assessments should be developmentally appropriate, considering the age, abilities, and cultural backgrounds of the children being assessed. They should align with the stages of child development and consider individual differences and diversity. Age-appropriate assessment tools and methods help ensure that children are not evaluated against inappropriate standards or expectations. 5. Comprehensive: A quality child assessment should provide a comprehensive view of children's development across multiple domains. It should assess cognitive, social- emotional, language and communication, physical, and other relevant areas of development. By considering various aspects of development, assessments provide a holistic understanding of children's progress and inform targeted interventions. 6. Culturally Sensitive: Assessments should be culturally sensitive and consider the cultural backgrounds and experiences of the children being assessed. Culturally biased assessments may lead to inaccurate results and perpetuate inequities. Quality assessments should be inclusive, recognizing and valuing the diverse ways children demonstrate their knowledge and skills. 7. Individualized: Child assessments should recognize and account for individual differences and strengths. They should provide insights into each child's unique abilities, interests, and learning styles. Individualized assessments help educators tailor their instruction to meet the specific needs of each child, supporting personalized learning and growth. 8. Continuous and Ongoing: Quality child assessment is not a one-time event but a continuous process that involves ongoing observation, documentation, and reflection. It captures children's progress over time, allowing for the identification of developmental trends and patterns. Regular assessment helps educators make informed instructional decisions and monitor children's growth effectively. 9. Authentic Relationships: Assessments should be conducted within the context of authentic relationships between educators, children, and families. Building trusting relationships with children and their families enhances the validity and reliability of assessment data. Open communication, collaboration, and shared understanding contribute to a more accurate assessment of children's abilities and needs. 10. Ethical and Confidential: Quality child assessment adheres to ethical guidelines and protects children's privacy and confidentiality. Assessments should be conducted with informed consent from families, and data should be securely stored and used for educational purposes only. Respect for children's rights and privacy fosters a trusting and supportive assessment environment. By embracing these characteristics, educators can implement quality child assessments that promote accurate understanding of children's development, inform effective teaching practices, and support positive outcomes for all children. Topic 14: Difference between Assessment and Evaluation Assessment and evaluation are two terms commonly used in the field of education and are often used interchangeably. While they share similarities, there are distinct differences between the two concepts. Let's explore the difference between assessment and evaluation: Assessment: Assessment is the ongoing process of gathering information and evidence about a student's knowledge, skills, and abilities. It involves various methods and tools used to measure learning outcomes and provide feedback on individual progress. The primary focus of assessment is to monitor student learning, identify strengths and weaknesses, and inform instructional decisions. Here are some key characteristics of assessment: 1. Purpose: The main purpose of assessment is to determine what students know, understand, and can do. It aims to measure learning outcomes and provide feedback for improvement. 2. Timing: Assessment occurs throughout the learning process and can be conducted at various points, such as before, during, or after instruction. It is often ongoing and formative in nature. 3. Methods: Assessment uses a variety of methods, such as quizzes, tests, projects, observations, portfolios, and discussions. These methods are designed to collect evidence of student learning. 4. Feedback: Assessment provides feedback to students, teachers, and other stakeholders. It helps students understand their progress, identify areas of improvement, and guide their learning. Teachers use assessment feedback to adapt instruction and support student growth. Evaluation: Evaluation, on the other hand, is a broader process that involves making judgments or decisions based on the information gathered through assessment. It focuses on interpreting and analysing assessment data to determine the effectiveness of a program, curriculum, or instructional strategy. Here are some key characteristics of evaluation: 1. Purpose: The primary purpose of evaluation is to make judgments, judgments based on evidence collected during the assessment process. It aims to determine the overall quality, effectiveness, and impact of an educational program or initiative. 2. Timing: Evaluation typically occurs at specific intervals or endpoints, such as the end of a course, semester, or program. It is often summative in nature, providing a comprehensive analysis of student learning and program outcomes.  3. Methods: Evaluation employs a range of methods and data sources to assess the overall effectiveness of a program. This may include analysing assessment results, conducting surveys or interviews, and reviewing program documentation. 4. Decision-making: Evaluation results are used to make informed decisions about the effectiveness of educational initiatives. It helps stakeholders determine whether goals have been met, identify areas for improvement, and inform future planning and resource allocation. In summary, assessment focuses on gathering information about individual student learning, providing feedback, and guiding instructional decisions. It is an ongoing, formative process. Evaluation, on the other hand, involves making judgments and decisions based on assessment data to determine the overall quality and effectiveness of educational programs or initiatives. It is a broader, summative process that occurs at specific endpoints. Both assessment and evaluation play crucial roles in understanding and improving educational outcomes. Topic 15: Guidelines for Assessment Assessment is a crucial component of the learning process, allowing educators to measure students' knowledge, skills, and understanding. Here are some guidelines to consider when conducting assessments: 1. Clearly Define Assessment Goals: Before conducting an assessment, it is essential to identify the purpose and specific goals of the assessment. Are you assessing knowledge acquisition, critical thinking, problem-solving skills, or other learning outcomes? Clearly defining the goals will help ensure that the assessment aligns with the desired learning objectives. 2. Use Multiple Assessment Methods: Employ a variety of assessment methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of students' learning. Different methods, such as written tests, projects, presentations, group work, portfolios, or performance assessments, can provide a more holistic view of students' abilities and allow them to demonstrate their learning in different ways. 3. Provide Clear Instructions and Expectations: Clearly communicate assessment instructions, expectations, and criteria to students. Ensure that they understand the purpose of the assessment, the specific tasks or questions they need to address, and the criteria on which their work will be evaluated. Clear instructions help students focus their efforts and produce work that meets the desired standards. 4. Use Authentic Assessments: Whenever possible, design assessments that mirror real- world contexts or tasks relevant to the subject or field of study. Authentic assessments  allow students to apply their knowledge and skills in meaningful and realistic scenarios, providing a more accurate representation of their abilities and promoting deeper learning. 5. Balance Formative and Summative Assessment: Incorporate both formative and summative assessments throughout the learning process. Formative assessments provide ongoing feedback and allow students to monitor their progress, while summative assessments evaluate learning outcomes at the end of a unit, course, or program. Striking a balance between the two types of assessments ensures that students receive timely feedback for improvement while also measuring their overall achievement. 6. Use Rubrics and Scoring Guides: Develop clear rubrics or scoring guides that outline the criteria and levels of performance for each assessment task. Rubrics provide students with a roadmap for success, enabling them to understand the expectations and self-assess their work. Rubrics also promote consistency and fairness in grading, ensuring that assessments are evaluated objectively. 7. Provide Timely and Constructive Feedback: Feedback is an essential component of the assessment process. Provide prompt and specific feedback that highlights students' strengths, areas for improvement, and suggestions for further development. Constructive feedback supports students' growth, encourages reflection, and helps them understand how to enhance their learning. 8. Ensure Fairness and Equity: Consider the diverse backgrounds, abilities, and learning styles of your students when designing assessments. Strive to create a fair and inclusive assessment environment that accommodates individual differences. Avoid biases and ensure that assessments do not disadvantage any particular group. 9. Regularly Review and Revise Assessments: Continuously evaluate the effectiveness of your assessments and make necessary revisions based on student performance and feedback. Assessments should be dynamic and responsive to the evolving needs of students, providing a valid and reliable measure of their learning. 10. Promote Student Engagement and Reflection: Encourage students to actively engage in the assessment process by reflecting on their work, setting goals, and monitoring their progress. Foster a culture of self-assessment and self-regulated learning, where students take ownership of their educational journey and strive for continuous improvement. By following these guidelines, educators can design assessments that effectively measure student learning, provide valuable feedback, and support students' growth and development throughout their educational journey.