Part 5 Management of the Design Project PDF

10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC Chapter 5.1 Managing the D...

10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC Chapter 5.1 Managing the Design Project Print this page Preamble There is much information available about project management in general and managing the design project in particular. This chapter provides an overview of the key aspects of and relevant tools for design project management. This chapter cannot provide detailed information about applications or methodologies. Each firm must transform project management standards and processes to develop core competencies and competitive advantage. Introduction Effective management of the design project is an essential element of good professional practice. This chapter presents the overarching processes of managing a design project, the deliverables that those projects produce, and the role of the project architect (also called a project manager or design team leader) — the person in an architect’s office who directs and administers an architectural project. This chapter does not cover: project management as a separate professional service or form of delivery; construction management as a form of project delivery. These topics are discussed in Chapter 4.1 – Types of Design-Construction Program Delivery. This chapter provides an overview of fundamental processes and select tools appropriate for architectural practice. There are numerous texts, software, references, educational opportunities, and websites that provide detailed information about project management processes, tools and techniques. Many web-based and standalone software programs provide accessible and affordable project management solutions and tools for firms both large and small. The architect should be mindful that any project management solution must be tailored to support a practice’s processes as well as the value proposition that it offers to clients. This chapter will describe and expand on three areas of project management pivotal to project success: scope management, schedule management, and the role of the project manager or project architect. Project stakeholder management is addressed separately in Chapter 5.2. Design project cost management is discussed in Chapter 3.9 – Architectural Services and Fees. Risk management is discussed in Chapter 3.8 – Risk Management and Professional Liability. Project procurement management is discussed in several chapters, including Chapter 2.2 – The Client, Chapter 2.3 – Consultants, and Chapter 4.1 – Types of Design and Construction Program Delivery. Predictive and Adaptive Project Management The traditional approach to managing the design project is based on predictive project management. The scope of the project is defined, the costs are estimated with a degree of certainty, and the completion dates are established. Milestones are put in place and the work proceeds in sequence, following the traditional five-phase project life cycle. Predictive management reinforces adherence to the plan, sequential workflows, not moving forward without client sign-off at each phase, and limiting change. If all goes according to plan, the scope, quality, cost and schedule expectations are met, and project stakeholders are satisfied. Predictive management reduces project risk and increases the probability that project objectives and profitability will be achieved. In a predictive management environment, change is the anathema. Change may originate from multiple sources. The advent of multiple design-construction project delivery methods challenges the traditional approach to predictive project management. The value propositions of design-build (DB) and construction management (CM) both build on a fast-track approach, meaning design work continues concurrent with construction. Alternate financing and procurement (AFP) and the integrated project delivery (IPD) both expand on the number of stakeholders involved in the design-construction project during design, thereby increasing project risks and the probability of change. Change can be difficult and stressful to manage. The risk factors that influence change must be managed proactively. Without careful management, change in scope or quality may lead to decreased profitability and client satisfaction. These risk factors may result in one of project management’s biggest pitfalls, rework. That said, architects are required to address change frequently, and change may be the norm rather than the exception. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 1/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC Although well established, predictive project management is not the only approach to managing the project life cycle and addressing change. Innovations in program and project management have resulted in change-focused methods that incorporate tools and techniques to address a need for flexibility while at the same time achieving results. A combination of predictive and adaptive project management may result in a hybrid methodology that enables a firm to capitalize on change and enhance stakeholder satisfaction. The design-construction industry is a disparate one with many players and no centralized supply chain management structure that coordinates the entire endeavour from inception to operations. In fact, a contractor’s profitability often derives from their customized supply chain management structure, wherein their competitive advantage arises from negotiated procurement and execution arrangements. Any profitability arising from process innovation may not be realized by all players, making change slow and innovation hard to adopt. The adoption of the integrated project delivery (IPD), with its shared risk and reward structure, may accelerate innovation in design and construction processes, technologies, and management methodologies. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to design project management. Each firm must build a methodology combining traditional and innovative processes and tools that are adaptable to the increasing variety of construction procurement approaches. A firm’s project management methodology should speak to how it engages its various stakeholders and the value proposition it presents to the marketplace. Investment in innovation may pay off by enhancing a firm’s core competency, leading to competitive advantage. Management of the Design Project: Differentiating the Design/Construction Program from the Design Project The term “project” can describe multiple endeavours undertaken by a variety of stakeholders in the course of achieving the desired outcomes. Design, construction and operation of a facility is multi-faceted and usually involves the following activities by the various project team members: studying the feasibility of the project; securing financing; developing the concept; developing and documenting the design; obtaining regulatory approval; obtaining agreements for construction; building the project; commissioning the project; managing issues arising during the warranty period; operating and maintaining the asset after construction completion; regenerating the existing facility for new uses or demolishing and recycling the asset. However, all of this work is typically divided into multiple clearly articulated and separate projects. For example, to a building owner, the “project” may include the land acquisition, functional programming, design, construction, and commissioning of a new facility. To the architect and engineers, the project is the design work needed as part of the delivery of professional services. To the construction contractor, the project is the construction of the building, and so on. The design/construction/commissioning endeavour is multiple projects managed as a program of interrelated undertakings. Each is carried out by different organizations with defined responsibilities. An architect may deliberately or inadvertently assume responsibility for managing the client’s planning/design/construction program. The architect’s understanding of the relationships between multiple individual projects is crucial to delivering professional services. Critical to the sustainability of the design firm is defining the scope of both products and services for each of these different projects and establishing who is responsible for the work and deliverables of each project. These variations between individual projects, as well as core and specific services required by regulation, building code (the community), project complexity, client, contractor and consultant variations, and climatic imperatives, are all subject to logical management. In the absence of management, misunderstandings of scope and responsibility can lead to lack of clarity among all parties. At worst, this lack of clarity can lead to reduced confidence in the architect, resulting in a loss, no repeat business, or litigation. Opportunities may be presented to a firm when it can identify distinct program management scope in addition to design project management scope. Program management services may be additional services that add value for the client. Clarity is required to resolve gaps or overlaps in work and responsibility in the program of related projects. Developing a Firm’s Project Management Methodology Architects work in an environment that is almost exclusively project-based, and project management is firmly within the scope of architectural practice. Unlike operational environments, such as manufacturing plants or schools, projects have a beginning and an end, and create a unique outcome. Working on projects is second nature to architects. However, with the pressure to generate https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 2/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC deliverables to meet deadline, investing resources in planning and organizing the work of the project may become a lower priority. The effort to create deliverables requires that work is planned and executed by being assigned to responsible individuals, monitored and controlled, and that the outcome is transferred to the next stakeholder or team member. Each architecture firm must develop a methodology for managing the work involved in delivering the variety of its design services. At the simplest level, that methodology includes systems for: planning the work to be done – a work plan; assigning the most appropriate resources to the work, including ongoing professional development and training; managing schedule and resources through tracking what is being done, what is pending, and what is completed; managing design project costs; identifying that quality and scope requirements are being met; transferring the deliverables in an orderly manner to the next stakeholder in the design-construction chain. Multiple national and international not-for-profit organizations have created both generic and industry-specific project management standards and certification programs. However, a project management standard is not a methodology, and a certification in project management does not guarantee performance in the role of project manager. Each firm must develop its own methodology in managing the design project. Through analyzing a firm’s mission, objectives, and culture, and the client’s need for progress reporting and deliverable status, the firm develops its own processes and applies standard or customized tools to the management of the design project. A firm’s project management methodology is not merely a set of processes to be executed but rather a core competency that demonstrates to clients the firm’s unique approach to meeting their needs at the same time as differentiating the firm from its professional competitors. One approach to project management is the project management body of knowledge developed by the Project Management Institute, which includes knowledge areas, processes and tools that apply to any project endeavour, including building design. The study and application of project management methods has grown substantially over the past two decades. A distinct project management discipline has emerged. Although the fundamental elements of managing projects, scope, schedule, cost and quality have not changed in over 70 years, the body of knowledge has expanded, and clients have increased expectations of the scope of project management services related to design service delivery. Increased expectations have led to a rise of consulting firms specializing in project management services delivery. Project management service providers (PMSP) may mediate the relationship between the client and the architect. The impact of this change in the design-construction industry, particularly with public sector clients, has resulted in changed relationships between the client and the architect, and repositioned the architectural practice in the value chain of the design-construction industry. Setting Up the Project Much of this Canadian Handbook of Practice for Architects addresses establishing the infrastructure that enables architects, technologists, specification writers, interior designers, and contact administrators to do their work efficiently and effectively. This infrastructure includes the operating systems needed to run a practice, such as accounting and payroll systems (Chapter 3.4), human resources (Chapter 3.6), and technology systems (Chapter 3.7). Chapters throughout the Handbook provide information about these basic business systems. Infrastructure also includes the systems that allow for the efficient and effective management of projects. Those systems include communications management (Chapter 5.3), quality management (Chapter 5.4), and workflow/process management (Part 6). Although there may be an apparent contradiction between the sometimes frenetic drive to create unique design deliverables and the regularization of design processes and work flow systems, great work can originate from a disciplined approach to management of the project. Establishing structured systems using checklists, reviews and approvals, and workflow tools will support the creative endeavour. The management of structured workflow systems becomes more important with the increase in integrated design activities. This becomes apparent in the implementations of the integrated design process (IDP), integrated project delivery (IPD) (see Chapter 5.5) and building information modeling (BIM) (see Chapter 5.6). Refer to the Canadian Practice Manual for BIM, Volume 2 – Company Context, Chapter 7 – Project Delivery Considerations, and Volume 3 – Project Context, Chapter 4 – Workflows for discussions of project planning within the context of establishing BIM systems within the firm. Management of the Design Project Effective management of a design project includes: identifying the project’s stakeholders, their interest in the project and their ability to influence project outcomes, and managing stakeholder engagement (Chapter 5.2 – Stakeholder Management); https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 3/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC defining both the product scope (drawings, models, and specifications) and the project scope (stakeholder engagement management, design activities, coordination, etc.); developing a plan of work that can be achieved within a realistic time frame by applying an appropriate level of human and financial resources commensurate with the fees charged, and that is validated by those doing the work; selecting, recruiting and managing people, including in-house staff and outside consultants (Chapter 3.6 – Human Resources); developing and executing a communications plan that responds to the information and decision-making needs of all project stakeholders (Chapter 5.3 – Communications Management); delegating tasks appropriately; monitoring and controlling project activities, making management interventions as necessary to achieve deadlines and financial targets (multiple chapters); controlling and managing the design process with attention to changes in scope of both the design product and the design services. Role of the Project Architect/Project Manager Before discussing the roles and characteristics of all project stakeholders, let’s first look at the project architect as a key stakeholder in the success of a design project. The role of the project architect is challenging and complex, as it requires the knowledge and skills related to architectural design as well as project management. It is widely accepted in the project management community that a competent project manager with good interpersonal skills and process knowledge should be able to manage, within reason, any type of project. However, this view may not be widely accepted outside of the project management community. The role of the project architect is complex as it encompasses not only the role of a project manager, but also that of the an architect. The project architect requires knowledge and abilities in design, building technology, document production and contract administration, as well as interpersonal, leadership, management and business acumen skills. The success of a design project depends on someone who can combine the strengths of a project manager and a designer – the project architect. The project architect or project manager is a leader generally responsible for: organizing the management of the project endeavour, including the work, schedule, budget, human resources and risk; providing the client representative and contractor with the point of contact for the design team; ensuring that the project proceeds through successive stages, from program approval to project implementation; keeping the project on time and within budget; managing the progress of the project by: directing an internal team; directing and coordinating the contribution of engineers and other consultants; achieving the firm’s financial objectives; providing proper project closeout. The project manager may be a principal, partner-in-charge, senior architect or other individual (preferably an architect) with experience in the practice of architecture, business acumen and practice management, and in leading a diverse team through the dual focus of task execution and relationship building. There are numerous sources that describe the attributes of the successful project architect/project manager. A couple of them can be found on the PSMJ Resources Inc. website, including: “What Are the Traits of the Best Project Managers?”; “9 Essential Skills of Highly Effective Design Leaders.” Coordinating Engineers and Other Consultants See Chapter 2.3 – Consultants regarding the role of consultants and agreements with consultants. See Chapter 3.8 – Risk Management and Professional Liability for issues to consider when assembling the design team. The project architect is responsible for: ensuring the scopes of work for team members are complementary and comprehensive; providing engineers and consultants with all information promptly and clearly in order to optimize their participation; ensuring that their designs and specifications are properly coordinated; maintaining morale as well as ensuring the respect and recognition of all consultants. Refer also to the standards of the Project Management Institute that provide a structured methodology for project management at www.pmi.org. The Project Organization https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 4/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC The design project organization is comprised of representatives of the client and all the firms involved in the design endeavour. Typically, the project architect is responsible for managing and coordinating the work and communications for the entire project organization. The project organization includes not only the architectural firm(s) but also all the consultants working on the project. However, a client may retain consultants individually, and coordination of the separate consultants must be included in the scope of work of the architect or one of the other consultants. Virtual Teams Most design work is conducted using virtual teams, or teams that are geographically distributed, and has been since building design specializations emerged. Architecture and engineering firms have worked collaboratively at a distance, achieving higher levels of integration through ever more sophisticated communication technologies. Even if all architectural and engineering work is undertaken by a single firm, members of that firm may be in separate and distant offices. The building and development of effective virtual project teams requires resources and time. It does not happen automatically as a result of simply knowing an individual’s role and task responsibilities. Individual firm goals and cultural differences may challenge virtual team effectiveness. Leadership and interpersonal skills are required of the project architect to meld the virtual team into a coordinated working unit. “All hands” kick-off meetings and retreats, and detailed and effective communication planning will support the project architect in enhancing the performance of the team. The advantages of virtual teams are that any one firm can manage work assignments efficiently and staff can work on multiple projects concurrently. As well, an office that is discipline-specific can sustain a high degree of expertise in their area of specialty, be it architectural design or engineering. A disadvantage of virtual teams is that staff of an office separate from that of the project architect may be required to re-prioritize the work of multiple projects on a constant basis, and any given project may suffer from the inefficiencies associated with multi-tasking. As well, differing firm cultures may obstruct effective communication and a shared understanding of project objectives and stakeholder satisfaction. Co-located Teams The common approach to design project organization is to work in virtual teams. Occasionally, a project’s complexity, scale or risk warrant the co-location of the design team. All members of the design team are brought together from different firms to a single location to optimize planning, design integration, production and collaboration. The co-located team may be situated in a project- specific office created just for the project or in a space provided by the client. The advantages of a co-located team include optimal management of project-oriented workflows, increased performance through design integration, and an opportunity to foster a high degree of team spirit and collegiality. Disadvantages may include increased project costs, as a firm may charge a premium for employees who are not available to the office for a period, and reduced discipline- specific advancement and development as project-specific objectives take priority. As well, additional costs may be associated with setting up a project-specific office. In-house Teams For small projects, project managers may carry out several of the tasks themselves. For large and complex projects, several people participate in the same task. The project manager must identify the manpower and skills required and must also constantly direct and motivate the in-house team. The composition of the team is the key factor in achieving both architectural and financial objectives. The team may include the project manager and several architects, intern architects and technicians. More complex projects or very specialized services (such as acoustics, vertical transportation systems, architectural conservation and wind studies) often require hiring outside experts. Client-Architect Agreements The project architect must review the client-architect agreement before starting work. It is preferable to use a standardized agreement such as the Canadian Standard for of Contract for Architectural Services because: standard agreements are widely recognized and accepted; the architect’s and the client’s responsibilities are clearly defined; the scope of work is clearly distinguished, between basic services and additional services. The prudent project manager will review the terms of both the client-architect and the various other consultant services agreements to fully understand the scope and limitations of the consulting services to be provided. This should forestall later misunderstandings or unreasonable expectations. The project manager should identify when any subsequent increase in fees as a result of additional https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 5/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC services is warranted, and then consult with the principal or partner-in-charge and assist in any adjustment to fees. They should also identify for resolution any shortcomings or issues associated with consultant services. See Chapter 3.8 – Risk Management and Professional Liability for more detail on client-architect agreements. Planning the Project Design Project Scope Planning Project scope includes all the work that must be done to realize a successful outcome. This includes both the scope of the design product, i.e., drawings, models and specifications, and project scope, the activities of the services being delivered. Scope management, using a traditional, predictive project planning model, starts with collecting project requirements, defining the scope of the project and the product, developing a detailed plan of work, executing the plan, monitoring the work and comparing the actual results with the plan, and making management interventions to either bring the work in line with the plan or change the plan, as required. The Business Case Scope management starts through an analysis of the client’s business case. The business case links the expected outcome of the project with an organization’s strategic objectives. Undertaking a project starts with both the architect’s and the client’s documented needs. The client’s need may be, for example, to improve response times in an emergency department, to produce more product to meet market demand, to enhance a corporation’s image in the marketplace, or to update a facility to meet occupational health and safety requirements. In commercial and institutional projects, this document may be titled “business case,” “feasibility study,” “needs assessment” or something similar. The document makes the connection between a client organization’s strategic interests and objectives, and the desired future condition. The document should present the problem at hand, including analysis, constraints and assumptions. It may or may not include a specific scope or even a defined solution to the problem. It should include the resources, financial and otherwise, that the organization is prepared to invest in the endeavour to solve the problem, although not an estimate of the cost of the yet unknown solution. The client’s business case links the client organization’s strategic need with a desired program or project outcome. For example, a board of education’s business case for a new school would outline the changing demographics of a school district over a decade or more, capital funding available for a new school, and the maximum design-construction program expenditure. It would also include operating costs and the impact that the new school would have on adjacent school zones. The architect’s business case for pursuing the design commission of the new school would include the benefits to the firm of pursuing the project over other possible opportunities, as well as the impact that the project would have on firm resources. Those benefits may include profitability, recognition, or stronger footholds in existing or new markets. The architect’s business case should link the reason for pursuing the project with the firm’s strategic goals. Analysis of the client’s business case and the architectural firm’s business case will educate the architect in the scope of the design product, the scope of the design project, and the work that needs to be done to achieve the desired outcome. Requirements Gathering Pivotal to managing project scope is having a complete a grasp of the requirements for both the product and project. Requirements may come from many sources, including the client, building users, neighbours, authorities having jurisdiction, and any stakeholder who may express an interest in the project and has the influence and power to impact project work and outcomes. Product requirements include the functional program for spaces, building systems, operational parameters, and constraints and limitations. Project requirements include the services to be provided. As well, project scope includes how communications are to be managed, the review processes of the owner, stakeholder and authorities having jurisdiction, and expectations of the format of deliverables, such as models, renderings, drawings and specifications. Requirements gathering is a process that requires leadership and interpersonal skills, communication skills, and group facilitation techniques. Three significant risks to any architectural project at this early stage are lack of clarity and understanding of the stated client requirement, unstated client requirements, and both stated and unstated stakeholder requirements. Time invested in requirements gathering is never wasted. See the ten values of effective decision-making early in the project as demonstrated in the MacLeamy Curve in Chapter 6.1 – Pre-design. Scope Definition https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 6/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC Scope definition includes the steps required to develop the project and ensure that it includes all and only the required work. Project scope definition is primarily concerned with defining what is and is not included in both product and project. Controlling project scope requires that clear definitions are established at the outset so that variations from the agreed-upon scope can be identified, documented and addressed appropriately. Activities of scope definition include: analyzing the stakeholder requirements and expectations, including those of the client, authorities having jurisdiction, building users, etc., to identify processes that require work on the part of the design team, such as the preparation and presentation of reports, applications for regulatory approvals, or information gathering sessions; identifying the requirements of the construction project delivery method; deconstructing the overall built outcome into systems and components to identify the deliverables and subdeliverables of the design process, such as a schematics design report or construction documents. Scope definition results in a scope statement. The scope statement outlines the description of both the intended product and the project. A scope statement of the product is often included as an appendix to a request for proposals (RFP) document. A scope statement of product requirements should describe the major objectives of the solution required to meet the client’s defined problem/opportunity of the project. The project objectives should also relate to the criteria the client would use to evaluate the project. Product scope may include the following example topics: spatial and physical relationships: functional spaces, facility physical size and special relationships; operational requirements; geographic boundaries; pedestrian, public transport, and vehicular site access; parking; security; special purpose functions and spaces; swing space. design considerations and building systems: environmental compliance and sustainable development; heritage considerations; structural capacity; operating and maintenance; building environmental systems; high performance envelope and systems design; emergency power. The project scope statement may include any or all of the following items: client processes and operations: client strategies, applicable policies, industry regulations (different from building codes) and possible standards violations arising, and their effects; source of funds for the project; project-specific health and safety standards; client preferred or required design-construction delivery methods – procurement management; scheduling, timing and phasing; security; value generation and design analysis. The scope statement should describe in detail the scope of the project needed to meet the stated objectives. It is important to keep in mind the requirements for both the product scope (the features and functions of a product or service) and project scope (the work required to deliver the product). The project objectives should also define the criteria that can be used by the stakeholders to judge the success of the project. The project team should work together to prepare a detailed scope statement which produces the project deliverables (scope of physical deliverables, services and activities). Assumptions and Constraints All scope statements should include a discussion of project assumptions and constraints. Assumptions should be explicitly stated and represent unknowns that need to be tested and validated in the course of the project. Assumptions may include: the building’s existing structure is capable of supporting the new changed use; https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 7/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC neighbouring landowners will object to the proposed new building’s height; the municipal services, potable water, storm water and sewage have the capacity to handle the needs of the new building. Each of these assumptions represents significant risk to a project’s success and stakeholder satisfaction if not tested, found to be valid or invalid, and acted on appropriately. Constraints are typically external to the control of the design team, such as a client’s funding deadline, a construction start as soon as the ground thaws, or a client’s desire to use a design-construction project delivery model. All assumptions and constraints should feed into the project risk management plan. Work Breakdown Structure Development The work breakdown structure (WBS) is a hierarchical, graphic representation of the work of the project. It is the hub of all other project planning and management processes and activities. It decomposes the project’s deliverables into assignable and manageable pieces. The WBS can be developed based on project phases, activities or physical deliverables and services. FIGURE 1 Work Breakdown Structure of Renovation and Addition to Elementary School (only schematic design and design development phases shown above, the linked image extends to tendering) The top level of the WBS represents the major deliverables of the project. The deliverables are broken down or “decomposed” into subdeliverables, which are then decomposed into tasks. The WBS may be many levels deep, depending on the project’s scale and complexity. The objective of decomposition is to break the work of the project into tasks that are discrete enough to be: individually understood and clearly defined (e.g., “design elevations,” “stair details drawings,” or “specification section XX-XX-XX”); clearly communicated to those delegated to do the work, including a schedule, work instructions and level of effort (cost) that can be estimated with reasonable accuracy; tracked as to status (not/started, in process, completed). The advantage of using a WBS is that it supports the project team in previewing what is included in the project, and helps to better understand how the various stages will come together to produce the final product. The WBS becomes the scope baseline, meaning it illustrates the approved work to be done, all of the work to be done, and only the work to be done. Any changes to the scope of the product or the project should be documented and approved, and then the scope baseline should be revised. Project costs are controlled at the level of each task. Resource requirements are estimated for each task. Responsibility for the execution of the project is managed through assigning tasks. Tasks are broken down into time-consuming activities, which are then sequenced before durations are estimated. The WBS is the hub of all project planning and control processes. The purpose of WBS development and other project planning and control processes is to reduce the burden of management of the project and to efficiently and effectively monitor, control and report on project progress. Design Project Schedule Planning Architects work in a deadline-driven environment. Although scope, quality and cost are all pivotal to stakeholder satisfaction, when push comes to shove, schedule often becomes the driving force in project decision-making. A well-developed project schedule may assist the architect in maintaining control over expected work when time becomes short. Project schedules are planning tools that help the project architect and teams organize various defined tasks to meet the deadlines established by client expectations and contractual obligations. In addition, schedules help to monitor progress on tasks until the project is complete. Although a variety of scheduling techniques are available for many types of projects, the project manager must select a method which can be adapted to the scale and complexity of the work. This chapter will review the basic scheduling tools commonly used in managing design projects. Milestone Chart https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 8/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC This simple tool relates the delivery of project deliverables with constraining calendar days. It may take several formats and include other information. It provides a high-level snapshot of expectations of the completion of major project phases. It typically links the completion of a specific deliverable with a calendar date. FIGURE 2 Project Milestone Chart The project milestone chart is intended to communicate executive-level information and to frame project schedule constraints. It can be created in different formats using a range of software tools. The example in Figure 2 was created using Microsoft Project and collapsing the detailed schedule to show only the date ranges of phased deliverables. Activity Lists For the schedule to be developed, the tasks of the work breakdown structure (WBS) should be further broken down into lists of activities. Ideally, each activity should include associated work instructions, forms and templates, so that team members have information to proceed with where more active mentoring is unavailable. Where project costs are controlled at the task level, the development of time-consuming activities may require that tasks are further broken down into activity lists. Where a task may extend over two weeks (a typical maximum duration for project tasks), detailed decomposition may be needed to estimate the resource requirements and the duration of activities, and to sequence the activities. FIGURE 3 Project Activity Breakdown The breakdown in Figure 3 illustrates the decomposition of work-consuming tasks to time-consuming activities. Determining the Critical Path The critical path is the longest pathway of sequential and parallel activities through a project’s schedule. It represents the shortest time in which a project can be completed. Determining the critical path requires estimating the duration of activities and sequencing activities. Network Diagram The network or precedence diagram shows the relationships between activities. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 9/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC FIGURE 4 Overall Project Network Diagram The network diagram illustrates the relationships between all project activities. FIGURE 5 Project Network Diagram Detail - Design Development Phase Optimizing the duration of activities and carefully sequencing them by rearranging resources can result in the reduction of the length of the critical path and, therefore, the critical path. A network diagram is an excellent tool to demonstrate at which point in the development of the design project stakeholders play a role in review and approval. Where a project has required milestone or completion dates (e.g., move in before the first day of school), the network diagram may assist in identifying limits on client decisions as well as deadlines for design team progress. Gantt Chart The Gantt chart, invented by mechanical engineer Henry Gantt, moves schedule development to the next step by taking the work breakdown structure (WBS), the scheduled activities with their accompanying durations, and sequencing it on a linear calendar. The work of the project can then be visualized with each activity interpreted as a bar on a linear calendar, its length in proportion to the activity’s duration. The Gantt chart is very common because it is easy to create and use, is visually clear, and satisfies the requirements for most projects. FIGURE 6 Project Gantt Chart The Gantt chart has numerous variations. Contemporary software allows for a host of variables, such as resource names, cost or completion date. It may illustrate the linkages between the activities, as does a network diagram. However, architects are cautioned that too much information may result in a confusing diagram where the main points to be communicated are lost among a plethora of lines, text and bars. The project architect should be mindful of the information needs of project stakeholders and tailor the chart for each stakeholder group. Refining the Schedule The initial project schedule should be developed based on the assumption that all work is completed during normal working hours with no overtime, at a standard rate of pay, and applying resources at levels to optimize efficiency. Only after the complete schedule is developed can the actual duration of the project be determined. An assessment can then be conducted to ascertain whether the project’s scheduled duration is acceptable and whether the resources are available at the times planned. The techniques of fast- tracking and crashing (see below) can be applied to compress schedule duration. Resource leveling can be done to more evenly distribute resources across the project schedule and limit erratic swings in resource usage. Crashing and Fast-tracking Crashing is a schedule compression technique in which additional resources are applied to activities on the critical path to shorten activity durations and therefore the length of the critical path. Crashing is systematically applied to shorten those activities by first applying additional resources of the lowest unit cost or hourly rate, then progressively applying additional resources at increasing rates of cost until the desired duration of the critical path is achieved. A hazard in crashing is that as the critical path is shortened, other critical paths emerge. Shortening the duration of an increasing number of critical paths becomes progressively more expensive. Another disadvantage of crashing is that the cost of the project disproportionately increases. Fast-tracking is the process of changing the relationships of activities by performing work in parallel that would normally be done in sequence. An example would be completing upper floor design while foundations are already being dug. Unlike crashing, project costs are not anticipated to increase beyond the cost estimate; however, project risk does increase as out-of-sequence work may result in needed corrections and rework. Design Project Cost Planning Generally, at the beginning of a project, the client will prepare an overall budget for “their” project. The budget represents the financial resources that the client is prepared to invest. It includes the budget for the design project, the construction project, and any other facets of the overall capital asset program. It is important to obtain, review and, if necessary, question the assumptions inherent in the client’s budget, remembering the client is generally not a designer or builder and may have made unsupportable assumptions. Out of that review process should come a clear understanding by the design team of what funds are actually available for the construction contract. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 10/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC The project architect’s/project manager’s financial roles are to manage the financial resources of the design project, monitor construction costs, and certify payments for the construction project. The tasks in the design project cost management process include: establish systems for tracking and reporting resources based on the work breakdown structure (WBS); estimate the cost of resources needed for each task, including those of the architect, engineer and specialist consultants, and apply the estimated costs of each task to the schedule to create the cost baseline (what is being spent on which tasks, when); as the project is being executed, gather resource-use data (timesheets and expense reports), typically using a time sheet reporting method where the team record their effort hours committed to individual tasks listed in the WBS; compare the actual resource use against the cost baseline, and calculate the variances; if the variances between the actual costs and the plan are unacceptable, make management decisions to either bring work in line with the cost baseline, change the baseline, or a combination of both. See Chapter 3.4 – Financial Management for controlling costs within the architectural office. See Chapter 4.2 –Construction Project Cost Planning and Control for the role of the architect in supporting the management of construction project costs. Executing the Design Project and Controlling Scope, Quality, Cost, Schedule, and Risk Controlling scope, quality, schedule, cost and risk of the design project involves the following: communicating the project plan to the project team, clearly articulating their roles and responsibilities and the project architect’s expectations; ensuring appropriate resources are available and capable of execute the work needed to create the deliverables; providing training, coaching and leadership; managing project communications, information, and stakeholder communications, including: meetings; issues log and actions arising; telephone communications; electronic and paper messages such as correspondence, memos, e-mail; record-keeping, such as meeting minutes, notes, project files and other documentation; removing obstacles that inhibit project team performance; monitoring and controlling the design project: review the work output created by the team; compare it to the project plan; control quality of the design deliverables through reviews, coordination and inspection for correctness; validate the scope of design deliverables for completeness; identify scope, quality, schedule and cost variances between the actual work and the plan; take managerial action to either bring the scope, quality, schedule and cost of the work in line with the design project plan, or change the plan, or use a combination of both; constantly monitoring and managing stakeholder engagement. Project Closeout The design project is not complete until the final steps of the closeout are finished. These document that the project, including its construction, has been properly and fully completed. Closeout must be planned to ensure that: enough resources are available to execute closeout tasks; the project’s documentation is distributed in the appropriate format to those stakeholders that need it; all design project contractual obligations are met. Contemporary software includes applications that are designed to capture project work in real time, including project completion work. This may reduce additional resources and effort at project completion. Project Evaluation The firm should assess whether the project has achieved its financial and professional objectives. This might include an external evaluation with the client. The project manager should analyze the project and if the objectives were not met, determine why and suggest corrective action for future projects. This evaluation should be communicated as widely as possible within the firm, so that lessons learned may be applied to other current and future projects. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 11/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC Record Drawings If engaged for this service, the project manager will oversee the preparation of CAD or other format record drawings for the client, based on the contractor’s “mark-ups” which show changes made to the construction documents. Also, the project manager should return to the client any documentation, such as construction drawings and specifications, which was provided as reference for the design of renovations or additions to an existing building. Archiving Project documents, including electronic communications and record drawings, should be kept and filed so that they may be readily and quickly retrieved if they are needed for other projects or in the event of a claim. Firm Database The project manager should extract information that could be used to develop a database for future work, such as: the construction cost estimates specific to a client, project type, project delivery type or geographical location; particular process requirements for a client, contractor, contract type, community, project type or complexity, or climatic area, including environmental management systems such as LEED; re-usable construction details or specifications. This type of information may inform a firm’s master work breakdown structure (WBS). Promotional Documentation Based on some of the project documents (such as sketches, perspectives, plans and photographs) and data, project managers should prepare or assist in the preparation of a “project record” or “project data sheet” that can be added to the firm’s portfolio for future use. This record should highlight the project’s special features and main challenges, as well as demonstrate the architect’s contribution to its success. See also Chapter 3.3 – Branding, Public Relations and Marketing. Use of the “Checklist for the Management of the Architectural Project” A “Checklist for the Management of the Architectural Project” has been provided at the end of this chapter. The checklist is based on the Ontario Association of Architects’ former Practice Bulletin Number 67, Architect’s Project Progress Record. The document has been reformatted, references to provincial terms have been modified, and minor editorial improvements have been included. Although the design and management of architectural projects are not necessarily linear nor quantifiable, this checklist can assist the architect in scheduling and recording the status of principal tasks during the course of a project. References American Institute of Architects and Joseph A. Demkin, executive editor. The Architect’s Handbook of Professional Practice, 15th Edition. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2013. buildingSMART Canada. Canadian Practice Manual for BIM. buildingSMART Canada, 2016. Emmitt, Stephen. Design Management for Architects, Second Edition. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell, 2014. Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition. Newtown, PA: Project Management Institute, 2017. PSMJ Resources, Inc. “9 Essential Skills of Highly Effective Design Leaders.” PSMJ Resources, Inc., February 5, 2019. http://go.psmj.com/blog/nine-essential-skills-of-highly-effective-design-leaders, accessed March 23, 2020. PSMJ Resources, Inc. “What Are the Traits of the Best Project Managers?” PSMJ Resources, Inc., July 9, 2015. http://go.psmj.com/blog/what-are-the-traits-of-the-best-project-managers, accessed March 23, 2020. Royal Institute of British Architects. Guide to Using the RIBA Plan of Work, 2020. London: RIBA Publishing, 2020. Royal Institute of British Architects. RIBA Job Book, Ninth Edition. London: RIBA Publishing, 2013. Royal Institute of British Architects. “RIBA Plan of Work 2020.” https://www.architecture.com/-/media/GatherContent/Test-resources- page/Additional-Documents/2020RIBAPlanofWorktemplatepdf.pdf, accessed March 23, 2020. Appendix Appendix A – Checklists for the Management of the Architectural Project https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 12/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapiter 5.1 - RAIC T 1-844-856-RAIC | [email protected] Privacy | Legal/Copyright | Royal Architectural Institute of About RAIC/IRAC | Canada Institut royal d'architecture du Site Map Canada The Canadian Handbook of Practice for Architects © RAIC 2020 https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.1 13/13 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC Chapter 5.2 Stakeholder Management Print this page Definitions Communication: The science and practice of transmitting information; the act of imparting news; information given; social dealings. Stakeholders: Any person or group of people who may impact outcomes or be impacted by project outcomes. Introduction One of the greatest challenges in achieving successful project outcomes is managing the demands of project stakeholders while working to meet the owner’s requirements of scope, quality, schedule, and budget. The management of a project’s requirements and the management of its stakeholders are integrally linked. This is particularly true for complex projects that have an extensive and complicated functional program involving multiple stakeholder groups with competing interests. As there are many stakeholders and stakeholder groups involved in projects, large and small, stakeholder engagement is best managed not solely by the client but collaboratively by all of those in a project leadership role. The client and the architect both play important and potentially different parts in engaging and communicating with stakeholders, and should discuss, in explicit terms, their desired outcomes and the role and responsibilities that each has in stakeholder management. This chapter is intended to guide the architect in establishing and maintaining efficient and effective project management practices while managing the relationships among those who have an impact on project outcomes and/or will be impacted by project outcomes. It provides clear direction on the use of project management principles and methodologies in order to manage the project’s stakeholders. It outlines techniques for analyzing stakeholders’ interests and influences, and proposes specific processes for monitoring stakeholder engagement. The importance of stakeholder management and the soft skills required to build relationships can best be stated in this paraphrased comment: A client may not remember how much a project was over budget or behind schedule, but they will always remember how you made them feel. Sean Rodrigues, FRAIC The Rise of Stakeholder Influence in Design Projects In 1984, Dr. F. Edward Freeman outlined a new theory in his book Strategic Management: A Stakeholder Approach. Freeman’s “Stakeholder Theory” represented a significant departure from the traditional approach to managing relationships with those that could have an impact on a business’s strategic objectives. Up to that time, the thinking of early 20th century economist Milton Friedman was widely acknowledged: the only stakeholder of concern to a business is the shareholder. Freeman’s “Stakeholder Theory” introduced the notion that anyone who could influence a business’s strategic objectives was a stakeholder. This concept has now been widely accepted in strategic, organizational and project management. We can witness the growth in importance of stakeholder management over the past 25 years by analyzing the changes to the Project Management Institute’s A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide) from the Exposure Draft released in 1994 to the Sixth Edition published in 2017. Project management was originally conceived as sets of processes that, if executed correctly and in order, would result in project success. In the Exposure Draft, there was scant information about stakeholders. A brief mention in the Communications Management section states: “The information needs of various stakeholders should be analyzed to develop a methodical and logical view of their information needs... Provide all information needed for project success... Without wasting resources on unnecessary information...”. Through successive editions, the role that stakeholders’ interests and influences played in project success became increasingly important. In the 2013 Fifth Edition, a new knowledge area was added, Stakeholder Management. The role of the project manager has changed from being an expert in planning and executing structured processes to that of negotiating the sometimes mystifying world of human emotion, interests and power dynamics. The Project Management Institute now considers interpersonal skills and leadership ability to be foundational for the effective project manager. Design projects have become increasingly complex. Site plan approval processes in major cities can now take many months or years, and can require multiple schemes to satisfy stakeholders’ interests. The rise in stakeholders’ influence has resulted from concerns for the environment, complex functional programs, the increased number of built environment specialists, branded certifications such https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 1/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC as LEED and WELL, a drive toward risk transfer, and a desire for increased building performance through less adversarial relationships and increased collaboration. Project Stakeholders There are many definitions of project stakeholders; however, for the purposes of this discussion, the definition adapted from Nutt and Backoff is best suited for the project environment: All parties who will be affected by or will affect the project’s outcome. (439) Therefore, project stakeholders are any individuals or groups that may affect project outcomes or may be affected by project outcomes. Stakeholders include: Client or owner: owner’s representative (project sponsor or key project decision-maker); owner’s project manager; various departments in the owner’s organization responsible for financials, resources and accountability, facility operations and maintenance, etc.; shareholders or board of directors; owner’s employees or tenants (user stakeholders). Design team: principals of architecture and consulting engineering firms; project architect and project engineers; design, production and contract administration staff; firms’ operational staff including human resources, financial management, and technology systems; professional liability insurers and other support organizations; specialized consultants (building code, acoustics, accessibility, etc.). Construction team: general contractor, construction manager, or design-builder firm owner(s) and owners of subtrade firms; office staff; site workers; manufacturers and distributors of building products. Authorities having jurisdiction: municipal and conservation area planning and design review panel members; building department employees, including plans examiners and site inspectors; health and safety authorities; elected officials; federal, provincial, territorial, and First Nations departments and agencies with regulation enforcement responsibilities and authority. Certification agencies: Canada Green Building Council (CaGBC) and Green Business Certification Inc. (GBCI); LEED; BOMA. General public: neighbours; specific interest groups. The list of stakeholders could be very long. Stakeholders will have varying degrees of interest in project success and/or the power or influence to affect project outcomes. Conversely, stakeholders may also have an interest, the power, or both, to negatively affect project outcomes. Stakeholder Management Processes The management of project stakeholders involves three processes: 1. Identifying and analyzing stakeholders; 2. Planning stakeholder engagement through developing strategies that respond to their interest in the project and their ability to influence project outcomes; and 3. Managing and monitoring stakeholder engagement. Stakeholder Identification and Analysis https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 2/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC The identification of stakeholders is pivotal to project success. A project risk of omitting to identify stakeholders at the project’s outset has the potential for a high negative impact on outcomes. However, doing this at the beginning of a project is difficult. A proactive approach that utilizes various tools and techniques will mitigate one of a project’s most significant risks: unstated stakeholder requirements. These can lead to scope creep, unforeseen costs and user dissatisfaction, among other potential consequences. Multiple tools and techniques are available, including producing a stakeholder breakdown structure. This is a structured and hierarchical representation of generic stakeholders’ roles relevant to design projects. It provides a prompt for stakeholder identification for a specific project. The output of this process is the creation of a stakeholder register. The stakeholder register lists all stakeholders, their names and contact information, interest in the project, their ability to influence outcomes, and, as the register is further developed in the next process, the strategy for engaging each stakeholder. The register is a living document and is revised on an ongoing basis as more stakeholders are identified over the course of the project. Brainstorming and mind mapping tools may be used to identify and categorize as many stakeholders as possible during an initial planning session. If the name of the stakeholder cannot be identified, then a placeholder should be included in the stakeholder registry, and later modified to add a specific person or people. There can be many stakeholders involved in a project, and there are numerous approaches to managing their engagement. An architect requires both communication and interpersonal skills to motivate stakeholders to support project objectives. Put simply, stakeholder analysis involves identifying where a stakeholder is on the spectrum of project support – at the one end actively supporting the project, and at the other, actively opposing it – and then moving the stakeholder towards the desired position. The two key factors in analyzing stakeholders are their interest in the project and their influence or power to impact project outcomes. For example, in the design of a school, teachers may have high interest in the design but low influence with a budget- focused administration. A municipal planning committee may have the power to delay a project’s approval but limited interest in the project as it does not contribute to their larger urban planning goals. A hospital vice president may have a high level of both interest and influence in the design of a renovated emergency department intended to reduce patient waiting times. A strategy to motivate each of these different stakeholders to commit to project objectives is required. There are a host of tools available to map the interests, influence, relationships, participation, responsibilities, and requirements of project stakeholders. Two variations of a matrix that illustrate the relationship between a stakeholder and their commitment to a project are the Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix (PMBOK Guide) and the Power/Interest Matrix (Johnson, et.al., 2005). Both matrices categorize identified stakeholders based on their position on a spectrum of project commitments: actively supporting project interests on one end, to actively opposing project interests on the other. Both tools have been adapted and altered over time to meet the needs of different industries. The purpose of both tools is to aid the project team in developing strategies to manage stakeholder engagement. Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix TABLE 1 Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix. Project Management Institute Inc., A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, 2017. Copyright and all rights reserved. Material from this publication has been reproduced with the permission of PMI. The Stakeholder Engagement Assessment Matrix from the Project Management Institute’s A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition identifies the current state of the stakeholders’ attitudes towards project objectives and the project manager’s desired state. Proactive analysis of stakeholders’ attitudes permits a plan of action to be developed that will support project objectives, rather than ad hoc relationship management. This tool may be used by a project team during an interactive session to develop strategies for getting some stakeholders onside, or at least for determining how to ensure they do not interfere with project outcomes. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 3/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC Stakeholder Interest/Influence Matrix FIGURE 1 Power/Interest Matrix, (Johnson. et.al, 2005) There are many variations of the power/interest or influence/interest matrices. The simplest of these is a 2x2 grid with interest in the project on one axis and power to influence the project outcomes on the other. The intent of the grid is to group stakeholders so that the most efficient and effective strategies for managing their engagement can be applied. The grouping of stakeholders supports optimal and selective communication messaging through the most appropriate medium to each group. Again, the tool can be used during a team’s interactive project planning session to identify stakeholders’ communication and engagement needs. The work of analyzing stakeholders provides an input to the stakeholder management plan that the entire project team can execute to proactively build project commitment. Planning Stakeholder Engagement The stakeholder engagement plan takes the analysis of stakeholder attitudes, interests and influence and describes a planned approach of how stakeholders will be engaged and communications managed. The stakeholder engagement plan is closely aligned with the communication management plan. See Chapter 5.3 – Communications Management. A stakeholder engagement plan describes: realistic expectations of stakeholders; the resources that need to be applied to the process of managing stakeholder engagement, including human and financial resources; the planned interactions, including meetings, retreats, social events and one-on-one opportunities built into the project schedule; information needs of each stakeholder, including: content of communications, such as project updates on completed scope, budget and schedule status, and achieved target; frequency of communication; mode of communication, including technology. Managing and Monitoring Stakeholder Engagement https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 4/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC Maintaining stakeholder engagement is an ongoing process throughout the life cycle of the design, construction and operational program. Many traditional architectural practices are in place for managing stakeholder engagement, including regular meetings with client representatives, user information gathering sessions, construction project kick-off meetings and routine site meetings. Maintaining stakeholder engagement requires executing the project’s stakeholder engagement plan and the communication plan, and routinely monitoring communications to ensure that the intended audiences are receiving, through the most accessible and appropriate technologies, the crafted messages when needed, in the format required, while employing interpersonal skills and political awareness. Again, see Chapter 5.3 – Communications Management. Project Politics and Political Awareness “Everything would be going fantastic if we could just eliminate the politics!” This is an often-heard refrain from those trying to move a project ahead in the face of opposition or indifference but who have limited power to do so. Politics is neither good nor bad but simply the way that people influence others in order to achieve their objectives. Project politics is an inevitable circumstance that the project architect must address and use to their advantage. In the broadest terms, bad politics focus on “I” while good politics focus on “we.” The subject of politics will exist in the architectural office, the design team, the client organization, and the general public. Political awareness, like the interpersonal skills of leadership, negotiation and conflict management, is required of the project architect to build commitment to project objectives. At the heart of political influence is building networks. The architect does this by: motivating and rewarding design team members for their performance; building a bank account of influence by supporting their network; exercising informal power; developing strategies for acquiring, using and maintaining power. For a comprehensive discussion of political awareness and the strategies and tools for influencing others in a project environment, the reader is advised to refer to Vijay Verma’s The Art of Positive Politics: A Key to Delivering Successful Projects. References Johnson, G., Scholes, K. and Whittington, R., Exploring Corporate Strategy: Text and Cases, 7th edition, London: Prentice Hall, 2005. Nguyen, Giang Thi. Key Stakeholders’ Impacts on the Implementation Phase of International Development Projects: Case Studies, 2010, accessed July 14, 2020 from https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:292139/FULLTEXT01.pdf. Nutt, P.C., and R.W. Backoff. Strategic Management of Public and Third Sector Organizations: A Handbook for Leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1992. Project Management Institute. A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 2017. Trentim, Mario Henrique. Managing Stakeholders as Clients. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 2013. Verma, Vijay. The Art of Positive Politics: A Key to Delivering Successful Projects. Oshawa, ON: Multi-Media Publications Inc., 2018. Verma, Vijay. The Human Aspects of Project Management, Volume One: Organizing Projects for Success. Newtown Square, PA: Project Management Institute, 1995. T 1-844-856-RAIC | [email protected] Privacy | Legal/Copyright | Royal Architectural Institute of About RAIC/IRAC | Canada Institut royal d'architecture du Site Map Canada The Canadian Handbook of Practice for Architects © RAIC 2020 https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 5/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.2 - RAIC https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.2 6/6 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.3 - RAIC Chapter 5.3 Communications Management Print this page Definitions Communication: The science and practice of transmitting information; the act of imparting news; information given; social dealings. Construction Communication: Within the organizational context, to convey an instruction to influence the actions/behaviour of others, or that may involve an exchange of or request for information during a construction project period. Communications Methods: A systematic procedure, technique or process used to transfer information among project stakeholders. Manage Communications: The process of ensuring the timely and appropriate collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, monitoring, and ultimate disposition of project information. Monitor Communications: The process of ensuring the information needs of the project and its stakeholders are met (Project Management Institute). Negotiation: Formal discussion between people who have different aims or intentions in business, design or construction, during which they try to reach an agreement. Plan Communications: The process of developing an appropriate approach and plan for project communication activities based on the information needs of each stakeholder or group, the available architectural practice resources, and the needs of the project (Project Management Institute). Minutes: The record or notes of a meeting or transaction; a brief summary of the proceedings of a meeting; an official memorandum authorizing or recommending a course of action. Stakeholders: Any person or group of people who may impact or be impacted by project outcomes. Introduction “Communication is at the center of architecture practice. An exceptionally gifted designer may not achieve success if he or she is unable to effectively communicate ideas to others. The construction process requires collaboration between many people, and architects must be able to communicate in a clear, concise, and unambiguous manner for a project to be successful.” David Greusel, AIA The value of the spoken word should never be underestimated; in fact, impassioned speeches and great architectural presentations have inspired people to take action that has created monuments and changed the course of history. Nevertheless, the practising architect should rigorously follow two essential rules: say what you mean and put it in writing. The practice of architecture always requires effective communications. Some of the many situations in which communication plays a key role include: explaining the roles and responsibilities of the client, the architect and the consultants in the design project; identifying the factors and requirements that will result in project success; describing skills, experience and unique value proposition to a potential client; developing and validating a client’s functional program or statement of requirements; presenting a design concept to a client for approval; explaining a design concept to the technologist who will draw it; advocating for the approval for a zoning change to a public body or authority; resolving a problem on a construction site. Broadly speaking, there are two contexts in which communication occurs in architectural practice: the project’s deliverables, including: the design; the technical systems and details of the building; coordination of the work of the architectural and engineering design team; the execution of the design on site by the construction contractor. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.3 1/17 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.3 - RAIC the project’s management, including: the scope of services; planning and controlling project costs, schedule and work; quality, risk and stakeholder management. This chapter will discuss the principles of effective communication and describe various communications processes and techniques to help the architect communicate project information and manage project stakeholders’ needs. Understanding the Communications Process The communications process requires: a sender; a receiver; a medium; a message; feedback. There are many factors that impact the clarity, transmission and understanding of a message. The design-construction industry has an intricate and multi-faceted supply chain involving many players with a wide diversity of interests, education, experience, expertise and languages. A sender’s message may be misunderstood by the recipient once the message is received and decoded. Over 60 years ago, Wilbur Schramm developed the fundamental model of communication used throughout the world today. FIGURE 1 Schramm’s model of communication (Verma 1996, p 17.)Adapted with permission of the author Vijay K. Verma. Schramm’s model of communication disassembles the communication process between sender and receiver, allowing the exploration of each facet of communication. There are many opportunities for effective communication to break down, including, to name just a few: challenges for the sender to encode an idea into language, be it a spoken language or the language of drawing; inappropriate selection of the medium of communication, such as drawing an idea when it would be better written, or talking directly to a client, either face-to-face or on the phone, rather than sending an email; perception filters of the receiver that block or distort the sender’s message; the language in which a message is transmitted not being understood by the receiver, e.g., cannot read drawings or does not share the same spoken language as the sender; the feedback from the receiver to the sender suffering the same challenges as the sender to the receiver. As Schramm indicates, the sender and the receiver must share overlapping fields of experience for effective communication to occur. Therefore, for communication to be effective, the architect must draw upon interpersonal skills to build a field of experience that reaches and overlaps that of the project stakeholder with whom they want to and must communicate. Characteristics of the Communications Process https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.3 2/17 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.3 - RAIC To communicate effectively, architects must have a good understanding of the characteristics of the communication process. According to Ralph Kliem, author of Effective Communications for Project Management, effective communication requires considerable flexibility and adaptability on behalf of all parties, and is: an integrated and interdependent process; a complex, dynamic process; a continuous process; a subjective process. Why is effective communication important on design-construction projects? “Construction projects are complex and risky, requiring the active participation of all contributors. Co-operation and co-ordination of activities through interpersonal and group communication are essential in ensuring the project is completed successfully.” M.E.L. Hoezen, The Problem of Communication in Construction In the publication Management of Building Projects, the British Columbia Building Projects Committee points out that effective communications and good documentation require: good interpersonal skills to achieve co-operation and successful teamwork; political sensitivity, which may be needed to enable timely agreements; presentation capabilities to convey key messages and to develop solutions (this often extends to business, municipal or community audiences); writing and graphic skills for timely distribution of information, to specify and coordinate the work and its progress. In “Why Is Communication Important in Construction Projects?” Neal Flesner notes that effective communications will: help build and maintain relationships on construction projects; foster idea sharing and innovation; help build confidence and strengthen teams; improve management of the team; create feedback loops; deliver results. Each of these requirements for effective communication point back to Schramm’s communication model and the need to consider all aspects of the communication process. Project Communications Management “Project communications management includes the processes necessary to ensure that the information needs of the project and its stakeholders are met through development of activities designed to achieve effective information exchange.” A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition Project Communications Management Processes The Project Management Institute’s A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge captures all aspects of project communications management in three processes: plan communications manage communications monitor communications Plan Communications Like all other processes in project management, communications must be planned. Who is to receive what information, when, in what format, using which medium? Leaving the processes of communications to chance or tradition can lead to serious errors in judgement, misunderstanding, mistrust and broken relationships. A communications plan should capture the communication needs for all project stakeholders, including the client organization, design team, construction team and external stakeholders, such as authorities having jurisdiction. At a high level, the communications planning in the publication Management of Building Projects includes: defining the project; selecting and detailing the project delivery methods; assigning project stakeholders’ role and responsibilities; systematically controlling the project scope, quality, cost and schedule. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.3 3/17 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.3 - RAIC These four project activities can be broken down into greater levels of detail in the project work breakdown structure (WBS). The format of the communications plan can take several forms; however, a simple approach is to start with the project’s work breakdown structure and ask of each deliverable, subdeliverable or task: “From whom do I need information about this work?” and “Who needs to receive information about this work?” A well-developed WBS will provide a firm foundation for communications planning, promote transparency, and avoid important issues slipping through the cracks. Using the work breakdown structure as a foundational tool in communications planning involves building a relationship between the work of the project and the project stakeholders. Each project stakeholder has information needs. Those needs may be captured at the high level (the deliverables), an intermediate level (the subdeliverables), or the detailed level (the tasks). Building the communications plan then becomes an exercise in asking the following questions for each stakeholder or stakeholder group: What information does the stakeholder(s) need from the architect about this deliverable (high-level information), this subdeliverable (medium-level information), or the tasks (detailed information)? What information does the architect need from the stakeholder(s) about this deliverable (high-level information), this subdeliverable (medium-level information), or the tasks (detailed information)? In what medium and format and with what frequency does the information need to be communicated? A simple communications plan built around the work breakdown structure will help the entire design team manage information throughout the project life cycle. This approach will also support changes to the communications plan as additional stakeholders are identified and their needs analyzed. Refer to the Canadian Practice Manual for BIM, Volume 3 – Project Context, Chapter 7 – Scope, Priorities, and Commitment, pp. 19- 24, for a discussion of project communications in a BIM environment. Manage Communications “The [manage communications] process ensures timely and appropriate collection, creation, distribution, storage, retrieval, management, monitoring, and the ultimate disposition of project information.” Project Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge, Sixth Edition Managing project communications involves the movement of information in accordance with the communications plan. As indicated above, there are two contexts in which project communications exist: information about project deliverables and information about the management of the project. Both of these contexts involve internal and external communication. Communication tools for the architect to manage the project include: Performance reports: the variances between the planned activities of design service delivery, including scope, cost and schedule, and actual performance of the design team; projections of project performance work, cost and schedule; management interventions needed to bring the project performance back in line with the plan or to propose changes to the project plan. Scheduling progress: milestone plan indicating outcomes achieved by critical dates; detailed schedule indicating work undertaken and completed against work planned. Cost reports: budgeted amount and actual expenditures. In generating communications, the paramount concern should be not what one wants to say but rather what one wants their audience to understand. Monitor Communications The architect should monitor all project-related communications and ensure that information is flowing as planned throughout the project. In monitoring communications, major problems may be avoided if the architect can respond and take appropriate action immediately. Often people will withhold or interrupt communication of information that they fear may pose a threat to their success and/or project success. The architect should ensure teams are communicating and co-operating in a timely manner to avoid unpleasant surprises to all parties. A time-honoured approach to monitoring communication effectiveness is through an auditing process facilitated by MBWA or “management by walking around.” This method is undertaken by engaging with team members and stakeholders on an ongoing but informal basis and asking whether communications are being received and responded to in a timely fashion and in an appropriate format. https://chop.raic.ca/chapter-5.3 4/17 10/24/21, 4:21 PM Chapter 5.3 - RAIC Three Types of Communication Architects traditionally communicated through drawings. As technology develops and evolves, it is now critical for architects to adopt and integrate many different forms of communication and information technologies, including the internet, video, audio and presentation sof