Contemporary Drama Past Paper (PDF)

B.A III D.C Semester V Course: 10 Course Code: 546001 Title of the Course: Contemporary Drama Credits: 04 Marks: 100 Course L Cr P/T D TP TW T Contemporary Drama 4 4 2.30 75 25 100 Objectives: i...

B.A III D.C Semester V Course: 10 Course Code: 546001 Title of the Course: Contemporary Drama Credits: 04 Marks: 100 Course L Cr P/T D TP TW T Contemporary Drama 4 4 2.30 75 25 100 Objectives: i. To map the historical and cultural contexts informing contemporary drama. ii. To develop an understanding of the techniques, styles and forms of contemporary drama. iii. To develop an understanding of the performative aspects of drama. iv. To study and analyse the prescribed texts in their socio-cultural, literary and performative contexts. v. To study the major playwrights of contemporary times. Learning Outcomes: At the end of the course, students should be able to- i. Demonstrative an understanding of the socio-political, historical and cultural contexts of contemporary drama. ii. Identify and describe the techniques and devices employed in contemporary drama. iii. Write analytically about contemporary drama using correct terminology. iv. Respond to the performative aspects of drama. v. Effectively communicate ideas related to drama during class and group activities. 1 Unit Topic and details Writer 1. - Critical perspectives and practices that affected and Miss Soofiya transformed reading and performance of post-60s Bharapurwala theatre: Postmodernist theory, Performance theory, Existentialism. - Popular and Street Theatre, Epic Theatre, Political Theatre, Theatre of Cruelty, Theatre of the Absurd, Kitchen Sink drama, Expressionist drama, Existentialism, Theatre of Menace, Retelling Canonical Drama. - Themes and issues in post 1960s Indian Theatre: The Theatre of roots, Use of folk dramatic traditions, Dramatic responses to India’s place in a globalised world, fundamentalism, nationalism, liberalization, etc. 2. Miss Soofiya Tom Stoppard. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead Bharapurwala (1966) 3. Miss Soofiya Manjula Padmanabhan. Harvest (1997) Bharapurwala Evaluation Scheme: Internal Examination : 25 Marks 1. Short notes on Unit I 10 Marks 2. Assignment on any one of the prescribed plays 15Marks External Examination : 75 Marks MCQs on Unit I 20 Marks Reference to Context (3 out of 5) 20 Marks Essay Type questions on Unit II and III (2 out of 4) 20 Marks Short notes on the plays (2 out of 4) 15 Marks 2 Recommended Readings: Banham, Martin, editor. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge University Press, 1988. Demastes. William. The Cambridge Introduction to Tom Stoppard. Cambridge University Press, 2012. Dharwadkar Aparna. Theatres of independence: Drama, Theory, an Urban Performance in India since 1947. Oxford University Press, 2008. Erica Hoagland and Reema Sarwal, editors. Science Fiction, Imperialism and the Third World: Essays on Postcolonial Literature and Film. Mcfarland, 2010. Eyre, Richard, and Nicholas Wright. Changing Stages: a View of British and American Theatre in the Twentieth Century. Knopf, 2001. Gilbert Helen, editor. Postcolonial Plays: An Anthology. Routledge, 2001. Innes, Christopher. Modern British Drama: the Twentieth Century. Cambridge University Press, 2009. Kelly, Katherine, editor. The Cambridge Companion to Tom Stoppard. Cambridge University Press, 2006. Lal, Ananda, editor. The Oxford Companion to Indian Theatre. Oxford University Press, 2004. Loftis, Sonya Freeman. Shakespeare’s Surrogates: Rewriting Renaissance Drama. Palgrave Macmillan, 2016 Styan J.L. Modern Drama in Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press, 1981. 3 Unit Topic and Details Page no. 1. Critical perspectives and practices that affected and 05 transformed reading and performance of post-60s theatre: Postmodernist theory, Performance theory, Existentialism. Popular and Street Theatre, Epic Theatre, Political Theatre, Theatre of Cruelty, Theatre of the Absurd, Kitchen Sink drama, Expressionist drama, Existentialism, Theatre of Menace, Retelling Canonical Drama. Themes and issues in post 1960s Indian Theatre: The Theatre of roots, Use of folk dramatic traditions, Dramatic responses to India’s place in a globalised world, fundamentalism, nationalism, liberalization, etc. 2. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead 24 3. Harvest 63 4. Questions for Internal Assignment 82 5. Bibliography 83 4  UNIT 1- BACKGROUND Contents- (A)Critical perspectives and practices that affected and transformed reading and performance of post-60s theatre: Postmodernist theory, Performance theory, Existentialism. (B) Popular and Street Theatre, Epic Theatre, Political Theatre, Theatre of Cruelty, Theatre of the Absurd, Kitchen Sink drama, Expressionist drama, Existentialism, Theatre of Menace, Retelling Canonical Drama. (C) Themes and issues in post 1960s Indian Theatre: The Theatre of roots, Use of folk dramatic traditions, Dramatic responses to India’s place in a globalised world, fundamentalism, nationalism, liberalization, etc. (A)Critical perspectives and practices that affected and transformed reading and performance of post-60s theatre: Postmodernist theory, Performance theory, Existentialism. Post-Modernist theory and Performance Theory The term Post-modernism is often applied to literature and art after World War II (1939-1945). This term is used to suggest a reaction or response to modernism in the late twentieth century. Like modernist literature, postmodern literature is part of socio-cultural and historical development and can be seen as a specific way of depiction of the post-modern life and culture. It shows a crisis of identity of human being (ethnic, sexual, social and cultural) and its struggle for legitimization in a hypocritical society. Post-modernist not only continues modernist trend but also added of their own such as: - Postmodernist critics discover the postmodernist themes, tendencies, and attitudes within literary works of the 20th century and explore their implications. - They foreground the fiction said to exemplify the notion of the ‘disappearance of the real’, in which shifting postmodern identities are seen, for example, in the mixing of literary genres. 5  - They foreground the ‘inter textual elements’ in literature in literature, such as parody, pastiche, and allusion. - They foreground irony, in the sense described by Umberto Eco, where the modernist tries to destroy, the past, the postmodernist realizes that the past must be revisited, but ‘with irony’. - They foreground the element of narcissism in narrative technique e.g. the novels focuses on and debate their own ends and processes, and hence ‘de- naturalize’ the content. - They challenge the distinction between high and low culture, and highlight texts which work as hybrid blends of the two. They were writers who contributed to postmodernist literature and in consequence blend the literary genres, hence few are listed here: - Samuel Beckett - Thomas Pynchon - Vladimir Nabokov - Roland Barthes Existentialism Existentialism refers to a particular view of the nature of man’s existence. The existentialist believes that man starts life with nothing. His life is made up of acts, through the process of acting man becomes conscious of his original nothingness. By choosing to act, man passes into the arena of human responsibility which makes him the creator of his own existence. This Existentialist notion eliminates the western concept of man’s exalted nature. Life becomes meaningless and useless- a condition which is in essence ‘absurd’. - Critics believed that the theatre of Absurd arose as a movement from the doubts and fears surrounding WWII and what many people saw as the degeneration of traditional moral and political values. The movement flourished in France, Germany and England, as well as in Scandinavian countries. - Absurdist work rarely follow a clear plot, and what action occurs serves only to heighten the sense that characters (and human beings in general) are mere victims of unknown, arbitrary forces beyond their control. Dialogue is often redundant, setting and passage of time within the play unclear, and characters express frustration with deep, philosophical questions, such as the meaning of life and death and the existence of God. 6 The theatre of the absurd was a short lived yet significantly theatrical, centred in Paris in the 1950s. Largely based on the philosophy of Existentialism, absurdist was implemented by a small number of European playwrights. Critic Martin Esslin coined the term in his 1962 essay, “The Theatre of the Absurd”. Existentialism philosophers who influenced absurdist playwrights were Frenchmen Jean Paul-Sartre (1905- 1980) and Albert Camus (1913- 1960) both also playwright themselves. In Samuel Beckett’s work “Waiting for Godot” (1953), for instance, the entire play consists of two characters waiting in definitely for a so-called individual to arrive, and their lack of information about who Godot is and when he will arrive supposedly comments upon human uncertainty about whether or not God exists. In Tom Stoppard’s work “Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead’ (1966). A well-known absurdist revision of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, there is a constant coin- tossing between the two friends represents the idea that all things in life are a matter of chance. The plots of many Absurdist plays, feature characters in interdependent pairs, commonly either two males or a make and a female. Some scholars even address such characters as “Pseudo couple”. The two characters may be roughly equal or have a begrudging evidence (like Vladimir and Estragon in Waiting for Godot), one character may be clearly dominant and may torture the passive characters (like Pozzo and Lucky in Waiting for Godot); the relationship of the characters may shift dramatically throughout the play (as in Ionesco’s The Lesson), or in Edward Albee’s play ‘The Zoo Story’. Traditional plot structures are rarely a consideration in The Theatre of the Absurd. Absence, emptiness, nothingness and unresolved mysteries are central features in many Absurdist plots. Plots can consist of the absurd repetition of cliché and routine, as in “The Bald Soprano” and “Waiting for Godot” often there is a menacing outside force that reminds a mystery, in ‘The Birthday Party’ by Harold Pinter for example, Goldberg and McCann confront Stanley, torture him with absurd questions, and drag him off at the end, but it is never revealed why. Playwrights associated with The Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett, Eugene Ionesco, Jean Genet, Harold Pinter, and Luigi Pirandello, Tom Stoppard and Badal Sarkar and more. Key plays- - Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett (1953 ) 7  - Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead by Tom Stoppard (1966) - The Birthday Party by Harold Pinter (1975) - The Bald Soprano by Eugene Ionesco (1950) - The Balcony by Jean Genet (1956) (B) Popular and Street Theatre, Epic Theatre, Political Theatre, Theatre of Cruelty, Theatre of the Absurd, Kitchen Sink drama, Expressionist drama, Existentialism, Theatre of Menace, Retelling Canonical Drama. Popular Theatre The term popular theatre denotes performances in the tradition of the music hall, vaudeville, burlesque, follies, revue, circus and musical comedy, as distinguished from legitimate, high, or artistic theatre. The singers, dancers, comedians, clowns, puppeteers, jugglers, acrobats, conjurers, and ventriloquists of popular theatre make up much of what is known as “show business”. Music, movement, and humour are all essential ingredients used by popular theatre throughout its history. Movement most often presents itself through eco-criticism, exaggeration, or acrobatics. England’s traditional music hall, virtually identical to vaudeville, originated in working-class alehouses but became a standard entertainment for all classes of society. It came with variety of short pieces- sentimental and patriotic songs, dances, comic turns, and magicians, jugglers, and acrobats. - Humour itself any distort reality crudely, as in slapstick, or corrosively, as in the mockery of a stand-up comic. Its effect earthy, ribald laughter has been sought in all kinds of theatre. The effect of music as a form of communication has always been highly valued in popular theatre. Music aids the suspension of disbelief and joins performer and viewer more closely in a shared event in which there is no pretence of realism. Street Theatre - Street theatre is a form of theatrical performance and presentation in outdoor public spaces without a specific paying audience. These spaces can be anywhere, including shopping centres, car parks, recreational reserves, college or university campus and street corners. They are especially seen in outdoor spaces where there are large numbers of people. The actors who perform street theatre range from buskers to organized theatre companies 8  or groups that want to experiment with performance spaces 20th century as a tool to emancipate the working class and reinforce revolution against the established power. Its journey began in India during the time if anti- colonial struggle, essentially by the left-wing theatre, as a form, bears close alliance with the folk theatre (Theatre of India), it’s more of a social communication process with a participatory approach, than a simple art from. - Street theatre is arguable the oldest form of theatre in existence: most mainstream entertainment mediums can be traced back to origins in street performers who, a hundred years ago, would have made their living working in variety theatres, music halls and in vaudeville, now often perform professionally in the many well-known street performance areas throughout the world. Notable performers that began their careers as street theatre performers include Robin Williams David Bowie, Jewel and Harry Anderson. Epic Theatre The playwright Bertolt Brecht was born in 1898 in the German town of Augsburg. After serving as a medical orderly in the First World War and appalled by the effects of the war, he went first to Munich and then to Berlin in pursuit of a career in the theatre. That period of his life came to an end in 1933 when the Nazis came to power in Germany. Brecht fled and during this period the Nazis formally removed his citizenship, so he was a stateless citizen. In 1941 Brecht became resident in the USA but returned to Europe in 1947 after appearing before the House Un-American Activities Committee. Ostensibly against communism, this committee also targeted intellectuals. By the time of his death in 1956, Brecht had established the Berliner Ensemble and was regarded as one of the greatest theatrical practitioners. As an artist, Brecht was influenced by a diverse range of writers and practitioners including Chinese theatre and Karl Marx. The turmoil of the times through which Brecht lived gave him a strong political voice. The opposition he faced is testament to the fact that he had the courage to express his personal voice in the world of the theatre. He also had an original and inspired talent to bring out a dynamic theatrical style to express his views. His most acclaimed work is Mother Courage and Her Children. Although it’s set in the 1600s, the play is relevant to contemporary society and is often regarded as one of the finest anti-war plays. Fear and Misery of the Third Reich is Brecht’s most overtly anti-fascist play. This work analyses the insidious way the Nazis came to power. 9 Why is Brecht so important? Bertolt Brecht was a theatre practitioner. He made and shaped theatre in a way that had a huge impact upon its development. Many of his ideas were so revolutionary that they changed the theatrical landscape forever. Modern theatre owes a lot to his methods. When naturalistic theatre was at its height and acted as a mirror to what was happening in society, he decided to use it as a force for change. He wanted to make his audience think and famously said that theatre audiences at that time “hang up their brains with their hats in the cloakroom”. In naturalistic or dramatic theatre the audience care about the lives of the characters onstage. They forget their own lives for a while and escape into the lives of others. When an audience cries for a character or feels emotion through the events happening to them its called catharsis. Brecht was against cathartic theatre. He believed that while the audience believed in the action onstage and became emotionally involved they lost the ability to think and to judge. He wanted his audiences to remain objective and distant from emotional involvement so that they could make considered and rational judgements about any social comment or issues in his work. To do this he used a range of theatrical devices or techniques so that the audience were reminded throughout that they were watching theatre; a presentation of life, not real life itself. His kind of theatre was called Epic theatre. He called the act of distancing the audience from emotional involvement the verfremdungseffekt. The ‘v’ effect Many people speak of alienating the audience (making them separate from the action) but verfremdungseffekt actually translates more closely to ‘distancing.’ However, it’s still often called the alienation effect or is shortened to the ‘v’ effect and there are many ways of using it. Brecht definitely wanted his audience to remain interested and engaged by the drama otherwise his message would be lost. It was emotional investment in the characters he aimed to avoid. His approach to theatre suits work which has a political, social or moral message. Perhaps you want the audience to consider the meaning in a parable (a story with a wider moral message). You might want to explore a theme or issue and make your audience consider varying viewpoints or sides to an argument. If so you can learn a lot from the distancing devices used in Brechtian theatre. 10 Epic theatre (Brechtian theatre) breaks the fourth wall, the imaginary wall between the actors and audience which keeps them as observers. They are active members of the theatrical experience as they are kept thinking throughout, not switching off. Devices using the 'v' effect A theatrical device is a method or technique used onstage which has an aim or purpose. The aim when using the 'v' effect is to ensure that the audience are constantly reminded that they’re watching a piece of theatre. Narration Narration is used to remind the audience that what they’re watching is a presentation of a story. Sometimes the narrator will tell us what happens in the story before it has happened. This is a good way of making sure that we don’t become emotionally involved in the action to come as we already know the outcome. Coming out of role / third person narration Commenting upon a character as an actor is a clear way of reminding the audience of theatricality. For example, midway through a heightened scene the action might break for the actor to comment upon their character in the third person, ‘Darius felt his anger rise. He wasn’t being listened to and wanted revenge’, before returning to the scene. Speaking the stage directions This device was used by Brecht more frequently in rehearsal than performance. It helps distance the actor from the character they’re playing. It also reminds the audience that they’re watching a play and forces them to study the actions of a character in objective detail. Direct address Speaking directly to the audience breaks the fourth wall and destroys any illusion of reality. An example would be the moment where Grusha pleads to save baby Michael in The Caucasian Chalk Circle by Brecht: I brought him up, shall I also tear him to bits? I can’t. Using placards A placard is a sign or additional piece of written information presented onstage. Using placards might be as simple as holding up a card or banner. Multimedia or a PowerPoint slideshow can also be used for this effect. The musical, Miss 11 Saigon, for example, used a slideshow to demonstrate the loss of lives in the Vietnam War which was highly effective. What’s important is that the information doesn’t just comment upon the action but deepens our understanding of it. For example, a married couple are arguing and the wife is very upset. If the actress held up a placard saying ‘I’m miserable’ that wouldn’t tell us anything about the character that we didn’t already know. However, if her placard said ‘I’m having an affair’ or ‘I’ve never loved him’ the audience would be forced to consider other aspects of their relationship and to think about deeper reasons behind her tears. Brechtian staging Multi-rolling Multi-rolling is when an actor plays more than one character onstage. The differences in character are marked by changing voice, movement, gesture and body language but the audience can clearly see that the same actor has taken on more than one role. This means the audience are more aware of the fact that they are watching a presentation of events. Cross-sex casting is also possible in Epic theatre as we don’t need to suspend our disbelief. Split-role This is where more than one actor plays the same character. For instance, the actor playing the main character might rotate from scene to scene. This keeps that character representational and inhibits emotional involvement and attachment on the part of the audience. Minimal set / costume / props Set, costume and props are all kept simple and representational. Elaborate costumes might mean that the sense of theatre, of pretending to be something else, was lost. Brecht did believe in historicism as a convention of verfremdungseffekt. Although mise-en-scène or the stage setting was minimal, there was always a sense of authenticity to production elements apart from a little sound and lighting. For example, Mother Courage’s cart in the National Theatre production is stocked full with realistic props that Mother Courage would need for authenticity. The cart is the fifth member of the family according to Brecht so there are examples of props being as important as characters in his plays. 12 Symbolic props Often one item can be used in a variety of ways. A suitcase might become a desk, or a car door or a bomb. Lighting Brecht believed in keeping lighting simple as he didn’t want the production values to overshadow the message of the work. He believed in using harsh white light as this illuminates the truth. However, many modern productions do use lighting effects. The important thing is that the audience still see the theatre, so often they will see production personnel, such as backstage crew, in action on the stage rather than hidden. Other Brechtian devices Song and dance This is a good way to ensure that the audience sees the theatre and are reminded of the fact they are watching a play. Often in Brechtian theatre the style of the music and the lyrics jar, they don’t seem to fit together in style. This distances the audience further. It’s worth listening to the song ‘Mack the Knife’ from The Threepenny Opera by Brecht and Kurt Weil. Notice how the musical arrangement and melody are upbeat and joyous, yet the lyrics are sinister and dark. This is a very Brechtian approach. One of the most famous lines from this work would still appeal to a modern audience: Who is the bigger criminal: he who robs a bank or he who founds one? Kneehigh Theatre’s production, The Red Shoes, employed several Brechtian techniques, such as song and dance, a narrator figure, placards and multi-role casting. Montage It's no accident that montage is a term that we’d more readily associate with cinema. Brecht consciously borrowed the idea from silent movies. A montage is a series of short self-contained scenes grouped immediately after each other whose juxtaposition or contrast highlights the important issues with absolute clarity. This idea of separate scenes also allows for a focus on minute details if the situation of the play demands it. Brecht was influenced by the film director Sergei Eisenstein's greatest demonstration of the power of montage in the ‘Odessa Steps’ sequence of his 1925 film, Battleship Potemkin. In the famous sequence 13 involving a runaway baby carriage, Eisenstein uses montage to arouse emotion and create suspense. Spass and Gestus Spass Spass literally translates as ‘fun’. Brecht wanted to make his audience think. He realised that while we are laughing we are also thinking. So much so that the playwright Eugène Ionesco called him a ‘postman’ because he was always delivering messages! However, Brechtian work isn’t boring and it’s definitely not always serious either. Even if the message itself is serious Brecht realised that comedy could be an excellent way of engaging the audience and forcing them to think about issues. Spass was also an excellent way to break the tension. Brecht needed to break rising tension to stop the audience from following characters on their emotional journey. It might be used in the form of a comic song, slapstick or physical comedy or even a stand-up routine. It’s ‘silliness’ in effect but often makes strong social comment in the way it’s used in the treatment of a serious subject. For example, a very serious work addressing suicide might break the action at a key moment in a character’s unhappiness to break into a parody of an American advert The poor taste of this would be shocking for an audience. But it actually highlights the pain of depression through contrast and black comedy. The audience will laugh and then question why they laughed. Gestus Gestus, another Brechtian technique, is a clear character gesture or movement used by the actor that captures a moment or attitude rather than delving into emotion. So every gesture was important. Brecht and his actors studied photographs of the plays in rehearsal to ensure each moment worked effectively. Could the audience tell by the actor’s gestures alone what was happening in the scene? Brecht didn’t want the actors to be the character onstage, only to show them as a type of person. For example, the boss who is corrupt and smoking a fat cigar as his workers starve is representative of every boss who profits through the exploitation of others. For this reason Brecht will often refer to his characters by archetypal names, such as ‘The Soldier’ or ‘The Girl’. 14 The interpretation will be built on the character’s social role and why they need to behave as they do, rather than looking inwardly at emotional motivation. So we judge the character and their situation, rather than just empathising with them. Gestus is also gesture with social comment. For example, a soldier saluting as he marches across a stage is a gesture. But if he was saluting as he marched over a stage strewn with dead bodies, it would be Gestus as a social comment about the type of person he represents. Mother Courage’s silent scream in the face of her son’s dead body is strange. Therefore we think of why she must hide her feelings rather than losing ourselves in the emotion. We react as thinking human beings as Helene Weigel – Brecht’s wife and partner in work - puts it. Epic theatre The idea of objectivity and the absence of empathy developed into a concept of theatre that’s called Epic theatre, as opposed to what Brecht referred to as Dramatic theatre. Dramatic theatre has a plot or story. We go to the theatre expecting the plot to be laid out before us and all issues to be resolved at the end. Epic theatre doesn’t attempt this neatness. The narrative starts and ends, leaving issues unresolved, confronting the audience with questions about what they’ll do. Ideally Epic theatre will be an inspiration to action whereas Brecht thought Dramatic theatre was entertainment. Dramatic theatre in his view should engage the audience in an emotional experience only for their time in the theatre. Scenes are episodic, which means they stand alone and are constructed in small chunks, rather than creating a lengthy and slow build of tension. Dramatic theatre has a linear narrative which means its events happen in chronological order. Epic theatre often has a fractured narrative that is non-linear and jumps about in time. Epic theatre also shows an argument. It’s a clear political statement. The audience remains objective and watches a montage or a series of scenes. Standing outside the action emotionally, the audience can study the story objectively and should recognise social realities. This clip from the National Theatre explains Brecht’s philosophy about using objectivity and distance in his work and also looks at the staging of Mother Courage and Her Children. Brechtian techniques as a stimulus for devised work You might choose to adopt Brechtian techniques because you’ve been told that you must exploit the ideas of a major practitioner in your work. Or it may be that 15  the objectivity of the style suits your piece. There are several elements you should consider if you’re going to create a piece in this style: The narration needs to be told in a montage style. Techniques to break down the fourth wall, making the audience directly conscious of the fact that they are watching a play. Use of a narrator. Because this character is outside the character framework, they change the relationship with the audience. Use of songs or music. Songs and dances are likely to provoke a more objective viewing, particularly if what you’re watching is serious and not the schmaltzy environment of a typical musical. Use of technology. If you project ideas onto a screen in a slide show or even have a still image there throughout each scene, it makes the audience analyse more thoroughly. Use of signs. If an actor starts each scene with a placard naming the scene or you have a board which is changed at the start of each scene, you’re reminding the audience about the fact that they are watching a play. Use of freeze frames / tableaux. This is obviously unnatural in the simple sense of that word, and should make the audience think about the frozen moment. Brecht today Brecht’s plays are still highly popular today. If you need to review a Brechtian performance, it won’t be so very different from any other review, except that you will be interested in how effectively the performers have measured up to the expectations of the script. As a political writer, Brecht would surely have expected a modern production to address current issues whilst remaining true to his ideals. If preparing a review, you should try and get hold of a programme so that you can study the director’s notes. This will help you understand what issues they were seeking to portray in the production and how they went about it. Nevertheless directors and writers keep finding new ways to interpret his work afresh. This clip from BBC Radio 3’s Night Waves programme features playwright Mark Ravenhill talking about translating Bertolt Brecht's play, A Life of Galileo for the Royal Shakespeare Company. He also discusses why Brecht is still relevant for modern theatre. 16 Practise your understanding of Brechtian techniques Answer the question then check your response against the sample answer. Question Imagine that you are about to start work on a devised piece about working life in the 19th century. Research will have told you about the horrors of people’s lives: young children as well as adults working long hours for low pay children who were slow or drowsy at work were strapped (beaten) children often injured by textile machines phosphorus necrosis of the jaw commonly suffered by match girls in factories due to exposure to phosphorus young boys being sent up chimneys to clean them Write a list for a montage approach of five scenes, incorporating techniques to break the fourth wall. Make sure you note what you’ve incorporated and how you made it work for you. Political Theatre A term denoting theatre used for political purposes, usually as part of a campaign or movement, sometimes as part of the work of a political parts. At its loosest, it can have a wide application ranging from community theatre to consciousness- raising by groups with a specific identity such as women’s black or gay companies. Its usage is often imprecise, overlapping with other terms like alternative, guerrilla or radical theatre. Each country has its own tradition of political theatre. In the twentieth century the peaks of activity in the industrialized world coincided with two periods of social and political upheaval, the first and major one triggered by the Russian Revolution of 1917 and its aftermath, and the second coming in the 1960s and 1970s. Common themes emerged- for peace against war, for democracy and justice against exploitation and tyranny and common forms too e.g. - Agitprop. Most of this theatre was socialist- or communist- inspired, and often involved professionals working with amateurs in non-traditional venues. By its nature much of the work is ephemeral, but it has also had an important effect on the theatre world through inspirational practitioners like Piscator, Brecht, Littlewood and Boal. 17 Theatre of Cruelty- The Theatre of Cruelty is a form of theatre developed by Avant-garde playwright, poet, actor, essayist, and theorist, Antonin Artuad. Initially a member of the surrealist movement, Artuad eventually began his own theatrical theories that determine the 20th century theatre. The Theatre of Cruelty is not bent on fostering public sadism or masochism, instead the cruel aspect of the theatrical discipline concentrates on dissolving the image of theatre as synonymous with fiction. The Theatre of Cruelty’s advantage as a stylistic genres is that it allows pre- existing existing plays to be considered in a new, and often more challenging, context, none more so than the sell-out production of The Changeling at the Young Vic theatre in 2012. This Jacobean tragedy is known as an example of the struggle against the patriarchal domination of the seventeenth century. The Theatre of Cruelty attempts to penetrate far deeper than naturalistic theatre. The exposure of such physical translations of raw emotions leaves more naturalistic pieces of theatre appearing to be emotionally stunted and filled with false pretences. The most repulsive aspects of human nature are translated into captivating art, where, by some strange paradox, the only thing that would seem out of place is reality. Theatre of Absurd- Introduction- The Theatre of the Absurd is a movement made up of many diverse plays, most of which were written between 1940 and 1960. When first performed, these plays shocked their audiences as they were startlingly different than anything that had been previously staged. In fact, many of them were labelled as “anti-plays.” In an attempt to clarify and define this radical movement, Martin Esslin coined the term “The Theatre of the Absurd” in his 1960 book of the same name. He defined it as such, because all of the plays emphasized the absurdity of the human condition. Whereas we tend to use the word “absurd” synonymously with “ridiculous,” Esslin was referring to the original meaning of the word– ‘out of harmony with reason or propriety; illogical’ (Esslin 23). Essentially, each play renders man’s existence as illogical, and moreover, meaningless. This idea was a reaction to the “collapse of moral, religious, political, and social structures” following the two World Wars of the Twentieth Century. 18 Influences- Absurdist Theatre was heavily influenced by Existential philosophy. It aligned best with the philosophy in Albert Camus’ essay The Myth of Sisyphus (1942). In this essay, Camus attempts to present a reasonable answer as to why man should not commit suicide in face of a meaningless, absurd existence. To do so, he uses the Greek mythological figure, Sisyphus, who was condemned to push a boulder up a mountain, only to have it roll back down. He repeats this futile cycle for all of eternity. At the end of the essay, Camus concludes that, “One must imagine Sisyphus happy” (Camus 123). He means that the struggle of life alone should bring one happiness. Essentially, we can find meaning in living even without knowing why we exist. The absurd dramatists, however, did not resolve the problem of man’s meaningless existence quite as positively as Camus. In fact, they typically offered no solution to the problem whatsoever, thus suggesting that the question is ultimately unanswerable. Themes- While absurdist plays feature a wide variety of subject matter, there are certain themes, or ideas, which reoccur frequently within the movement. These themes are the product of a new attitude that swept post-World War II Europe. It consisted primarily of the acknowledgement that the “certitudes” and “assumptions” of prior generations had “been tested and found wanting, that they [were] discredited as cheap and somewhat childish illusions” (Esslin 23). Two themes that reoccur frequently throughout absurdist dramas are a meaningless world and the isolation of the individual. A World without Meaning- The decline of religious faith in the Twentieth Century is partly responsible for the growing notion that life had no identifiable purpose. Whereas one who believes in the afterlife sees life as a means of getting there, one who does not believe is left to either conclude that there is no purpose or to find an alternative justification for his/her life. Esslin notes that this decline was “masked until the end of the Second World War by the substitute religions of faith in progress, nationalism, and various totalitarian fallacies” (23). Yet these approaches also appeared flawed, leaving the other option–the assertion that there is no meaning behind human life. In his play, The Chairs, Ionesco capitalizes on this meaninglessness. Throughout the play, the two main characters prepare chairs for invisible guests who are all coming to hear the meaning of life as declared by an 19 orator. The main characters kill themselves just before he speaks and then the audience discovers that the orator is a deaf-mute. Ionesco himself described the subject of the play as, “not the message, nor the failures of life, nor the moral disaster of the two old people, but the chairs themselves; that is to say, the absence of people, the absence of the emperor, the absence of God, the absence of matter, the unreality of the world, metaphysical emptiness” (qtd. in Esslin 152). This kind of world view is characteristic of the Theatre of the Absurd. The Isolation of the Individual- The playwrights involved with the Theatre of the Absurd were not conscious of belonging to a movement while writing their plays. Ironically, they each thought of himself as “a lone outsider, cut off and isolated in [his own] private world” (Esslin 22). This perspective clearly penetrates their work, as most of the plays emphasize the isolation of the individual, or man’s inability to connect with others. Samuel Beckett’s //Waiting for Godot// (1952), the most well-known play from the absurdist movement, features this idea. The two main characters, Vladimir and Estragon, are both tramps who spend the entirety of the play on the outskirts of society. Though they have each other, they are at the same time isolated from one another. One indication of this is that they are never able to adequately communicate; their conversation goes in circles. Form- The form of a piece of art is often neglected in favor of its subject matter. More specifically, drama is often studied in terms of what it is saying rather than in how it is saying it. (At least this is so in most academic settings because students typically read a play rather than see it performed.) Form, however, is arguably the most important aspect of absurdist plays. It is what separates them from other similarly themed movements, mainly existential drama. Esslin claims that “the Theatre of the Absurd goes one step further [than existential drama] in trying to achieve a unity between its basic assumptions and the form in which these are expressed” (24). Essentially, these playwrights were reacting against realism because it did not align with their objectives. They did not want to show life as it really was, but rather, the inner-life of man–what was going on inside his head. Esslin explains that “the Theatre of the Absurd merely communicates one poet’s most intimate and personal intuition of the human situation, his own sense of being, and his individual vision of the world” (402-403). In order to portray this “personal intuition” the playwrights had to abandon conventional methods and adopt a more poetic, or lyrical, form. 20 Devaluation of Language- One characteristic of this poetic form was the devaluation of language. The absurd dramatists felt that conventional language had failed man–it was an inadequate means of communication. As a result, the movement of the characters on stage often contradicts their words or dialogue. For example, both acts of Waiting for Godot conclude with the line “Yes, let’s go,” only to be followed by the stage direction, “They do not move” (Beckett 6). Essentially, the dramatists are trying to emphasize a disconnect between “word and object, meaning and reality, consciousness and the world” (Blocker 1). Moreover, in doing so they expose how unreliable language is; one can easily say one thing and do the opposite. Another common way in which they presented the uselessness of language was by having their characters constantly speak in cliches, or overused, tired expressions. Lack of Plot- Another poetic aspect of absurdist plays is that they lack a plot or a clear beginning and end with a purposeful development in between. There is usually a great deal of repetition in both language and action, which suggests that the play isn’t actually “going anywhere.” In Waiting for Godot, the stage directions indicate that Vladimir and Estragon are constantly moving. For example, they repeatedly “rummage” through their pockets and “peer” into their hats (Beckett 4-9). These actions are so frequent, however, that the audience begins to feel as if they are watching the same thing over and over again. They could even be called static actions as they contribute nothing to the flow of the play. Yet this lack of purposeful movement in Waiting for Godot and most other absurdist dramas is intentional. As discussed above, the plays are attempting to portray an intuition which by definition should be an instantaneous or immediate insight. It is “only because it is physically impossible to present so complex an image in an instant [that] it has to be spread over a period of time” (Esslin 404). Therefore, if one does not view the play as a story, but rather as a single idea being acted out, this supposed lack of plot becomes irrelevant. Conclusion- Above all, the absurd dramatists sought to reconcile man with the modern world. Esslin eloquently states that “the dignity of man lies in his ability to face reality in all its senselessness; to accept it freely, without fear, without illusions–and to 21  laugh at it” (Esslin 429). The absurd dramatists were the first to propagate this idea of acceptance in the face of absurdity. In doing so, they challenged the preconceptions of what does and does not constitute theatre. Essentially, the absurd dramatists redefined the art form and created a space in which succeeding movements could flourish. Key Figures- Samuel Beckett (1906-1989) Arthur Adamov (1908-1970) Eugene Ionesco (1909-1994) Jean Genet (1910-1986) Edward Albee (1928-2016) Harold Pinter (1930-2008) Tom Stoppard (1937) Kitchen Sink Drama A term applied in the late 1950s to the plays of writers such as Wesker, S. Delaney, and J. Osborne, which portrayed working-class or lower-middle-class life, with an emphasis on domestic realism. The term “Kitchen Sink Drama” is used to describe a new kind of drama that was introduced into British stage with Osborne’s Look Back in Anger (1956). This kind of drama used the working class setting with the working class characters. It was usually set in a bed-sit or flat and focus on domestic issues. Kitchen sink dramatists tried to draw a picture of the working class life. Arnold Wesker expressed his dissatisfaction with the society, taking a social point of view. This earned him being called ‘Angry Young Men’. Just like John Osborne, Wesker took a realistic approach in his plays. Wesker used emphatic endings, realistically detailed setting, and realistic dialogues and rounded characters. Unlike the advantage theatre and the theatre of absurd of Samuel Beckett, it had a social message and ideological stance, which was largely leftist. Kitchen Sink Drama depicted the everyday lives of ordinary people who struggle against the degradation of powerlessness, the loss of community or the deadening influence of the suburbia. John Osborne, Arnold Wesker, Shelagh Delaney, John Arden were a part of this movement but never referred to themselves as ‘Kitchen Sink Dramatists.’ 22 The films, plays and novels employing this style are set frequently in poorer industrial areas in the North of England, and use the rough-hewn speaking accents and slang heard in those regions. The film It Always Rains on Sunday (1947) is a precursor of the genre, and the John Osborne play Look Back in Anger (1956) is thought of as the first of the idiom. The gritty love-triangle of Look Back in Anger, for example, takes place in a cramped, one-room flat in the English Midlands. The conventions of the genre have continued into the 2000s, finding expression in such television shows as Coronation Street and East Enders. Expressionism Drama- Expressionism in literature arose as a reaction against materialism, complacent bourgeois prosperity, rapid mechanization and urbanization, and the domination of the family within pre-world war I European society. It was the dominant literary movement in Germany during and immediately after World War I. Expressionist writers aimed to convey their ideas through a new style. Their concern was with general truths rather than with particular situations; hence, they explored in their plays the predicaments of representative symbolic types rather than of fully developed individualized characters. August Strindberg and Frank Wedekind were notable forerunners of Expressionist drama, but the first full- fledged expressionist play was Reinhard Johannes Sorge’s Der Better (“The Beggar”), which was written in 1912 but not performed until 1917. The other principal playwrights of the movement were Georg Kaiser, Ernst Tikker, Paul Kornfeld, Fritz von Unruh, Walter Hasencleaver, and Reinhard Goering, all of Germany. Expressionist plays often dramatize the spiritual awakening and sufferings of their protagonists, and are referred to as Stationendramen (station plays), modelled on the episodic presentation of the suffering and death of Jesus in the Stations of the Cross. August Strindberg had pioneered this form with his autobiographical trilogy to Damascus. Theatre of Menace- Comedy of menace It is a term used to describe the plays of David Campton and Harold Pinter by drama critic Irving Wardle. It is borrowed from the subtitle of Campton’s play The Lunatic View: A Comedy, which also produces an overwhelming tragic effect. Throughout the play we find ourselves also on brink of terror. Some indefinable and vague fear keeps our nerves on an edge. We (the audience) feel uneasy all the time even when we are laughing or smiling with amusement. This dual quality gives to the play a unique character. 23 Some plays are able to successfully mingle drama with comedy. One specific example from The Birthday Party is a character joking around about being in a menacing situation while cleaning his gun to deal with the threat. The goal of such works is to generate tension around the situation or to alter the views of an audience about a particular character; after all, someone joking while planning to shoot another person is generally not a trustworthy person. Pinter creates an atmosphere of menace through a variety of dramatic elements and techniques. First of all, he lets situations fall from a light-hearted situation unexpectedly down to one which is highly serious (Is created by Pinter’s ability to drop suddenly from a high comic level to one of deep seriousness). Illustrations from the text? (E.g. read news- news about child birth, happy to feel nostalgic about piano show—remembrance of present state, interrogation, birthday party’s play- strangle/rape). By this technique the audience is made aware that the comedy is only at surface layer. The sudden outbreaks of violence (verbal/physical) in the play confirm this and leave the audience unsure of what will come next. With the hosting of the birthday party, the play reaches its climax of menace. A birthday party is expected to be a ritualistic celebration of one’s life, but in the case of Stanley it turns out to be the greatest ordeal of life leading to his complete mental derangement. The audience now understand the menace turning real though in transformed forms. Stanley faces not only physical assault but also a torrent of words, with the serious accusation. Retelling Canonical Drama Until a literature has a ‘canon’, it has been argued, it has mot risen to the level of sophistication at which it can be studied seriously by scholars. In fiction, canon is the material accepted as officially part of the story in an individual universe of that story. It is often contrasted with, or used as the basis for, works of fan fiction. The alternative terms mythology, timeline, used as the basis for, works of fan fiction. The alternative terms mythology, timeline, and continually are often used, with the former being especially of disbelief (e.g. an entire imaginary world and history), while the latter two typically refer to a single arc where all events are directly connected chronologically. Other times, the word can mean “to be acknowledged by the creator. 24  (C)Themes and issues in post 1960s Indian Theatre: The Theatre of roots, Use of folk dramatic traditions, Dramatic responses to India’s place in a globalized world, fundamentalism, Nationalism, Liberalization, etc. Theatre of Roots After independence in 1947, in their efforts to create an ‘Indian’ theatre that would be aesthetically different from the westernized theatre, established during colonial era and prevalent in urban areas at the time, Indian theatre practitioners ‘returned’ to their ‘roots’ in classical dance, religious ritual, martial arts, popular, entertainment and Sanskrit aesthetic theory. The ‘Theatre of Roots’ as this movement was known was the first conscious effort to create a body work for urban audiences combining modern European theatre with traditional Indian performance while maintaining its distinction from both by addressing the politics of aesthetics and by challenging the visual practices, performer/spectator relationship, dramaturgical structures and aesthetic goals of colonial performance, the movement offered a strategy for reassuring colonial ideology and culture and for articulating and defining a newly emerging ‘India’. ‘Theatre of Roots’ presents an in-depth analysis of this movement- its innovations, theories, goals, accomplishments, problems and legacies. When playwrights like Girish Karnad joined the stage after the nation’s independence in 1947, the Indian theatre was suffering from acute identity crises being torn between its ancient cultural past and its more recent colonial legacy, which gave birth to hybrid dramatic forms. Several theatre personalities at the time articulated the aspirations of a newly independent nation through their attempts to decolonize the aesthetics of modern Indian theatre by retracing its roots in the repository of India’s classical and folk traditions. Indeed the new century downed with a promise of a long cherished freedom, but even after Empire’s dissolution the vestige of the colonial past lurked beneath the veneer of the post-colonial nation and made its presence felt in every sphere of our cultural life. So the generation that came after independence suffered from a cultural schizophrenia, being caught between two worlds- one that refused to die and the other that was struggling to be born. Indeed the quest for an appropriate theatre form that would resolve these contradictory stains became a part of the larger ontological questions that these dramaturgists asked themselves- “Who am I?” …. Where do I belong in this complex social structure in this complex world? What are my times? What is my language? Where is my theatre? What is the language of my theatre?” 25 The decades from 1950s to 1980s may be roughly deemed as an era of indianization when the notion was gradually trying to rediscover itself by removing the mantle of the colonial culture. In 1955, Satyajit Rays’s rendition of father Panchali which became a watershed mark in shaping the cultural history of post 1947 India, has a particularly poignant scene where Durga wakes child Apu by opening his eyes with her hands, and as Apu stares wide through his tattered blanket, the camera fixes upon Apu’s gaze. This may be read as a succinct metaphor for the opening of the eye of Indian consciousness searching for a collective and national self-definition. In 1961, Habib Tanvir called for ‘our own plays about our own problems in our own forms’. So far at least next 30 years after independence by disclaiming colonial practises and by seeking to reclaim classical and other precolonial Indian traditions of performance as the only viable media of effective decolonization (Dharwadkar 2) The sangeet Natak Akademy under the stewardship of Dr. Suresh Awasthi, called out a whole new gamut of indigenous folk forms- Nautanki, Ram-Leela, Krishnaleela, Swang, kabigaan, Gambhira, Tamasha, Yakshagana, Kuchipudi etc drawing upon the epic and the folk resources of the country. In this heady quest for rediscovering the centuries old roots, theatre personaloities like Habib Tanvir, K.N. Pantikar, Ratan Thiyam, Girish Karnad and Vijay Tendulkar variously experimented with the paraphernalia of ‘folk theatre’. The Marxist theatre Veteran “Utpal Dutt’, for instance, showed an abiding interest in the folk form of yatra to reach out to the masses. In this forceful defence of ‘Yatra’. In search of forms, Dutt praises jatra for having the potentials for a revolutionary theatre. Dutt experimented with the form in ‘jatra plays’ as he calls them, like Sanyasir Tarabari, Tutu Meer and the critically acclaimed Tiner Tolaar. He even ventured into the direction of Shakespeare’s Macbeth in a yatra style. Like Dutt, several of his contemporaries were experimenting with different ingredients of Sanskrit as well as folk theatre by incorporating masks, mime, half-curtains, dance and music in their plays dealing genres such as Hayavadana, Ghasiram Kotwal or Charandas chor, just to name a few. Roots theatre by Dr. Awasthi is ‘both avant-garde in the context of conventional realistic theatre, and part of the 2000- year old Natyashastra tradition. The theatre of roots speaks of ‘plurality of theatres’ that combines traditional and Modern elements where village and urban cultures existed both independently and in combination. 26 Roots theatre in its nuanced complexities went beyond the simplistic binary of tradition and modernity, urban and rural, to create a platform for experimenting with various performances forms- Tamasha and Lavani of Maharashtra, Bhavani of Gujarat, Yakshagana of Karnataka, kodiyattam of Kerala, Therukoothu of Tamil Nadu and Chhau of Orissa and Bengal. LIST OF FAMOUS DRAMATISTS OF INDIA- Asif Currimbhoy- the most prolific playwright of post- independence period is Asif Currimbhoy, who has written and published more than thirty days. Some important plays are The Tourist Mecca (1959), The Restaurant (1960), The Doldrumness (1960), The Captives (1963), Goa (1964), Monsoon (1965), An Experiment With Truth (1969), Inquilab (1970), The Refugee (1971), Sonar Bangla (1972) and Angkor (1973). Inspite of comprehensiveness, Currimbhoy’s dramatic art has been a subject of criticism for the lack of structured plot, embellished language and balanced characterisation in his plays. Girish Karnad- In the capacity of writer, director and actor substantially contributed to enrich the tradition of Indian English Theatre. His dramatic sensibility was moulded under the influence of touring Natak companies and especially Yakshagana which was in those days not accepted as a purified art form. He borrowed his plots from history, mythology and, old legends but with intricate symbolism, he tried to establish their relevance in contemporary socio-political conditions. A writer of Kannda plays, Karnad made a noteworthy impact with Yayati and more so with Tughlaq. Hayavadana, a strong of a woman in search of the perfect man, is a powerful play based on a legend in the Kathasaritsagar. In the play Tale Dande, he discovers the vital relationship between contemporary society and literature. His use of myth as a structure and metaphor in his play gives “new meaning to the past from the vantage point of view of the present. In the play Nagamandala, the conflict is between patriarchal and matriarchal views of society. Rabindranath Tagore: Tagore wrote primarily in Bengali but almost all his Bengali plays are available to us in English renderings. His prominent plays, Chitra, The Post Office, Sacrifice, red Oleanders, Chandalike, Muktadhara, Natir Puja, and others, are firmly rooted in the Indian ethos and ethics in their themes, characters and treatment. Vijay Tendulkar: 27 Indian theatre gained immensely through Tendulkar’s Marathi play, Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe; it reveals the shocking streaks of cruelty hidden below the ordinary middle class veneer. In the course of the rehearsal of a mock trial, a woman’s character is attacked verbally by others with disturbing ferocity and sadistic delight. Kanyadaan is a complex play about the cultural and emotions upheavals of a family. Tendulkar was associated with the New Theatrical Movement in Maharashtra. He presents a fictional reality in which the reality of life acquires a sharp, focused character having rare dramatic power. Use of Dramatic Traditions- The Indian scene in general is characterized by agitation, endeavour and movement. Indian Folk Dramas have grown over the centuries and are a part of the life and culture of the rural people. Folk plays in the form of songs, dances and dramas have nourished a rich tradition. Though many of these have now become extinct and some are languishing, the rural folk have preserved and fostered. Indian culture has been shaped by its long history, and its diverse geography. The ancient heritage of the Indus Valley Civilization has been preserved even while absorbing customs, traditions, and rituals from both immigrants and invaders. Indian folk literature holds out a strong and a loud message for other parts of the world where these art forms have disappeared thick and fast in consonance with rapid industrialization and globalization. Folk literature and folk art forms are not merely carries of culture or philosophical poems, but rather the expressions of strong self-reflections and deep insights accrued therein. Simple life, self-reflection and treading the path of the righteous contained in traditions. Again, folk traditions are not merely platforms for holding high moral ground having no relevance to the present day reality. Several folk plays like ChaakiyarKoothu and VeethiNaatakam are used even today as satire plays and commentaries on the current social and political reality. Same holds true for many folk songs from the vast pages of Indian Literature. Indian folk music is a rustic reflection of the large Indian society. It draws largely from tribal music but is different from it. Indian folk music has many forms including Bhangra, Dandiya, Lavani and Rajasthani, most of which are dance oriented. The traditional folk music is mostly played on instruments like the flute, santoor, dholak, ektar and dotar. E.g. 1) Lavani is a popular folk form of Maharashtra. Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artists, but male artists may occasionally sing the songs as well. The dance form associated with Lavani is the Tamasha. The festival of LavaniMahotsav is celebrated in the state. 2) Dandiya is a form of dance-oriented folk music popular in Western India, particularly Gujarat, especially during Navaratri. The musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance of Dandiya. The music has 28 influenced film music and Indi-pop music to a considerable extent. 3) Bhangra is a form of dance-oriented folk music of Punjab. Uttarakhandi folk music has for its theme subjects related to nature. The folk music primarily is related to the festivals, religious traditions, folk stories and simple life of the people. Musical instruments used include the dhol, damoun, turn, ransigha, dholki, daur, thali, bhankora and masakbhaja. The songs are sung in Kumaoni and Garhwali. Folk art painting has been an integeral part of the Indian Civilization and it continues to be a living tradition. Warli, Madhubani, Patachitra and other forms of traditional Indian Folk art are internationally acclaimed possessions today and they depict Indian Culture. Quite a few folk-plays such as Ram Leela, RasLeela, Prahlad Natak, etc. Brief accounts of these are given below: Rama Leela Folk Play. It is a religious folk play in India. The word Leela literary means sport and therefore ‘Ram Leela’ portrays the sport of Rama, the King. Ram Leela performances start from ram Navami day and usually deal with the various incidents from the story of Ramayana which continues for several nights. The folk art of Ram Leela revolves around the heroic deeds of Lord Rama. Besides Lord Rama, the important characters of the play are Goddess Sita (wife of Lord Rama). Lakshman (brother of Lord Rama), and Lord Hanuman. Actors playing the role of demons, wear masks. Actions in the play adhere to dance-music or song- music which is cast in the form of dialogues. The band of chorus singers with orchestreal music repeats the refrains. Rasleela: Several Vaisnav poets have written innumerable songs of devotion pertaining to Radha and Krishna. Rasa Leela centres on the immortal love story of Lord Krishna with Radha and the Gopis and are played for nights together. Now-a- days dialogues have been added. The chorus singers always sing the refrains. Bharat Leela: This folk drama is more popularly known as ‘DwariLeela’ (Dwari means sentry). Folk plays in Indian draw their plots from mythologies, epics, tales, ballads or romantic legends. Bharat Leela draws its plot form the epic tales from Mahabharata. It is therefore, called Bharat Leela. In these play four essential characters, namely Arjuna, subhadra, Satyabhama and Dwari participate. The core of the Lela relates to Love and subsequent marriage of Arjuna with Subhadra. Dwari (Sentry) plays a very major role. Orchestral music adds grandeur to the play. 29 Moghul Tamsha: It is satirical play on the Mughals and is confined to Bhadrak area. It is multi- lingual performance, with songs and dialogues being used in Persian, Urdu, Hindi languages. It was inspired by the Marathas, ruling over Orissa, who satire on the earlier Muslim (Mughal) rule. Moghul Tamsha is still a living tradition. It has no definite plot. The main actor is MirjaSaheb who is the Moghul administrator. People masquerading as personal service-holders of Mughal rulers are called one by one to the stage. They sing songs and introduce themselves. Enough humour and satire is provided through the dialogues. Music is provided with Dhol and Jodi-Nagara. The folk-play provides entertainment to the people. Dramatic responses in a globalized world Globalization refers to the increasing interaction and integration of people socially, economically and culturally through increasing interconnectedness, in which, theatres are also affected by. Performances originally in English are now performed in multiple languages, allowing other cultures around the word to experience watching similar theatrical performances. In the case of India, this period of globalization coincides with the era of direct rule over the country by the British Government, an era that began in 1858 with the liquidation of the East India Company and ended in 1947 with Indian Independence. It was during this period that the modern theatre mature and expanded across major urban centres and regions, establishing professional theatre companies, constructing theatre buildings, and creating an array of new plays and productions for a growing and varied audience. The modern Indian theatre was thus born and raised within the crosscurrents of proto-globalization and modern globalization. Liberalization- Liberalization of the Indian economy in 1991 opened many doors for filmmakers, breaking down barriers to investment and technology. It took another seven years for institutional finance to enter the picture, however, in 1988, the sector was awarded industry status. In 2000, the Industrial Development Bank of India (IDBI) began to offer loans for film production at 15-20 % interest per annum. This was to curb the practice of producers investing personal or underworld wealth in projects. It gave the industry encouraging stability and a sense of security. Around the same time, the multiplex chains started emerging across India. In an article in The Times of India newspaper in 2007, columnist Swaminathan S Anklesaria Iyer said, “The end of the license-permit era has led to explosion of new theatres in every city. Even more crucial, price control has largely 30 disappeared. This has made possible the multiplex, the cornerstone of the next film revolution.” Nationalism- Modernity and nationalism in Indian theatre have played a major role towards making people aware of the social, economic and cultural change. Indian theatre have always catered to the need of making people aware of the social happenings through innovative and interesting play scripts and narratives. Evidently, theatre could not be disentangled form the idea of the national; rather, it became deeply entrenched in nationalist thought and its accompanying contradictions. It is possible to identify the beginnings of a ‘national’ theatre in the latter half of the nineteenth century with the production of a number of anti- colonial plays in Bengal theatre such as the Nil Darpan (The Indigo Mirror, 1860), written by Dinabandhu Mitra and with Harishchandra’s plays in the Hindu belt, in particular Varanasi and its surrounding regions. Existentialism Existentialism is a term which appeared in the late 19th century and it was a philosophical movement that signifies a thought. That is, philosophical thinking starts with the living, feeling human Individual. It was a philosophical movement that focuses on an individual’s own search of meaning and purpose in universe. In existentialism, an individual is responsible for his own actions whether it is right or wrong. Therefore, the play is quite similar to Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot. Because both of these plays represents characters that in existential suffering. Key characteristics of an existential work are presence of double sided heroes, mistaken identities and uncertain knowledge of the past. All of these features are exists in the play. Existential suffering is just a human treat that comes out with the awareness of mortality which it happened in the play. Throughout the play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern try to find an answer a question “What is death?” by fearing from it. Guildenstern looks at the question with a perspective of realism by knowing no one comes back after death and thinks that death is a phenomenon which blood runs cold. But Rosencrantz on the other side, he also has a curiosity to death which is unknown and he tries to understand the phenomenon by making an empathy, thinking himself as a dead man in a box that has a lid on it. And also wonders that, how a child meets with death for the first time in his childhood by thinking that it must be shattering. When it comes to their mistaken identities, it is just a signal for their lost individual lives. 31 The play forces people to become responsible for their life by doing something to their existence. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern had this chance for proving themselves in life by doing something meaningful but they’ve just missed it by not touching the letter. It is an example for all of us actually, there are lots of people on the earth that waiting something to be happen? But it never does because only you can show your own identity by doing or creating something meaningful. It asks people that what you are waiting for. Are you waiting for external forces to send you to your own doom? It is Actually a criticism, blame that made by Stoppard. He is trying to tell us that “you know everything about the world but doing nothing because of your hesitation or your fear of taking responsibility”. 32  ROSENCRANTZ AND GUILDENSTERN ARE DEAD Contents 1. Introduction 2. Significance of the Title 3. Background 4. Summary and Analysis 5. Characters 6. Themes 7. Motifs 8. Symbols 9. Quotes 10. Practice Questions Introduction Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead was Tom Stoppard's breakthrough play. It was a huge critical and commercial success, making him famous practically overnight. Though written in 1964, the play was published in 1967, and it played on Broadway in 1968, where it won the Tony for best play. The absurdist tradition that Stoppard is writing in suggests another enormous influence: Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot (1952). Beckett's play is just as important to Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead as Hamlet is. Waiting for Godot consists of two tramps sitting on-stage bantering back and forth and waiting for someone named Godot, who never comes. Stoppard, in his play, contrives a postmodern outlook on the political chaos in Hamlet through two of the minor characters of Shakespeare’s play. Before the murder of the king, the government could empirically produce regularities. These norms helped subjects like Rosencrantz and Guildenstern make sense of their being. But then, when Claudius seizes the power, neither trust nor circulating mistrust exists. Therefore, spatial distribution and role definition vanish. The eponymous characters live in a world where their empirical knowledge and rationality cease to function. The heterotopias such as the geographical directions are interrupted. Consequently, they fail to relate to the world and are left as non- functional empty slots. 33 Tom Stoppard’s Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead has been open to different modes of interpretations. Most significantly, many critics have pointed out the existentialist and absurdist atmosphere that the play creates; keeping this track, Manfred Draudt examines the vanishing adytum of each of the binary poles such as the ambiguous spheres of life/death, reality/illusion, and spectator/actor. Other scholars who have contributed to the dominant outlook are C. W. E. Bigsby with his theme of Absurdism; Lucina Paquet Gabbard whose work specifically focuses on the outstanding theme of absurdist death in the play; and Richard Corballis’s comparative work which elaborates on the role of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern versus the Tragedians who appear in the play (24-31). Pew Maji’s and Liang Fei’s sets of articles address the articulation of absurdism pervading the play. Significance of the Title The title of the play gives a direct reference to its ending as it happened in the Hamlet and obviously, gives the major source of the play to us. But there are also some similarities between it and Samuel Beckett’s waiting for Godot. To give example; the protagonists, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are the different sides of the same coin but together they resemble a persona. Another important feature of the play is its emphasis on the language due to its creator because Tom Stoppard is admired as a master of the Language. Therefore his play moves forward through rhetoric statements, lots of questions, riddles, simple language, complex language, intertextuality, unrhymed iambic pentameter, quotations, game of questions, puns and funny dialogues includes philosophy, slapstick humour, comedy and irony. Background MetaTheater- It is also a great example of MetaTheater and it is one of its central elements. The characters of the play is coming from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, therefore we can accept the whole play as piece of MetaTheater. It is a technique that reflects the world as an extension of human conscience, not accepting the norms of society but allowing an imaginative variation of society. It is a force within a play, simply challenges with the realistic representation. It is a term that refers to communication in which theatre talks about itself to draw attention for its theatrical presence. The actors become audience while watching a play within their own play. MetaTheater doesn’t represents the life exactly how it is on the contrary it may seem absurd and alien. Its aim is to revise the relationship between art and reality. Therefore it questions what is real and what is not. There is no 34 border between the reality and real life in the Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. This situation becomes so clear with the speeches of Player, hamlet’s advice to the players and meta-play known as mouse trap. There are lots of examples in the play such as play-within the play, players’ dramatic death in act 3 to show them this is just a play because all the play is actually wheels within wheels. The elements of MetaTheater are used to reinforce the idea of man’s confusion, helplessness and the absence of identity. Players are there to represent that we are all players, it is also an aspect of MetaTheater. They are there to ask us our own role in this absurd life. After the play in Hamlet that known as The Murder of Gonzago which used by Hamlet in the original to tend the King Claudius for revealing his true psychology, King Claudius sends them to England with Hamlet in boat with the mission of delivering him to King of England. The intention of this action is to give the letter to English king with hamlet for executing him. They revealed the truth about their voyage to England from the letter of King Claudius. Rosencrantz hesitates by thinking that he had done nothing wrong to them. But Guildenstern tells that doing nothing is the best thing for them. So they don’t show any reaction but Hamlet does. He changes the letters with the execution demand of them. After the attack of the Pirates, Hamlet escapes and they resign themselves to their fate. Rosencrantz still doesn’t seem to understand the reason behind their death but he seems relieved by knowing he had done nothing wrong. But Guildenstern still wonders, where did they passed the point of no return and how did the missed it. After their disappearing from the stage, an ambassador from England comes and announces their deaths but audience never sees that. So their deaths are just an assumption. There are several themes into the play such as meaningless nature of the world, hardness of making true choices, the art vs. reality and existentialism. One of the primarily aim of the play is to open the mystery of death to debate. According to Player, death is something that you can avoid, it is a rule and it is written. He has a vision about what is it going on as he said in the play. He tries to give a message to the couple that you don’t have to worry about your life, just do something useful and develop an identity because you will die either you like it or not and this not a something you can change. He clears this situation by saying that “Deaths for alleges and occasions” and “...blood is compulsory”. It is written on the manuscript of a play and when your part is over you have to know how to disappear. This is a meta-fictional aspect but also one of the messages of play to audience. 35 Plot Summary- Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead is not a simple play to analyse. It has many layers and asks many complex questions without ever providing any clear answers. However, this can be considered one of Tom Stoppard’s great accomplishments in writing the play. Stoppard does not seem to intend to provide any definite answers to the questions he poses because doing so would cheapen the experience. The philosophical and metaphysical material tackled in Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead is much too complicated to be fully explored and answered within the confines of one play. Instead, Stoppard asks the audience to ponder the concepts presented themselves and draw their own conclusions, if conclusions can in fact be drawn on such matters. The play holds up a mirror to viewers that reflects the uncertainty and lack of control present within their own lives. From the very beginning of the play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are moving towards an inescapable fate. Audience members are aware of this from the onset, both from the characters’ fates in Hamlet and the title of the play itself. However, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are completely unaware of this fate themselves. For most of the play, they wander around the stage utterly confused as to where they are or what they are doing. Their inability to find meaning as they march unknowingly to their final destination becomes increasingly evident through the structure of events within the play. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern wander through a featureless wilderness, flipping coins, which keep coming up heads. Each time a coin lands on heads, Rosencrantz wins it. While Guildenstern worries about the improbability of a coin landing on heads so many times in a row, Rosencrantz happily continues flipping. Guildenstern wonders if they have entered a world where the laws of chance and time are absent. The pair struggles to recall why they are traveling and remember only that a messenger called them. They encounter a troupe of actors, known as the Tragedians. The leader of the group, called the Player, indicates that the Tragedians specialize in sexual performances and gives Rosencrantz and Guildenstern the chance to participate for a fee. Guildenstern turns the improbable coin-flipping episode to their advantage by offering the Player a bet. The Player loses but claims he cannot pay. Guildenstern asks for a play instead. Guildenstern starts to leave as the Tragedians prepare, and Rosencrantz reveals that the most recently flipped coin landed tails- up. 36 The scene changes suddenly. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are now inside Elsinore, the royal castle of Denmark, watching as Hamlet and Ophelia burst onstage and leave in opposite directions. Mistaking Rosencrantz for Guildenstern, Claudius explains that he sent for the pair so that they could ascertain what is bothering Hamlet, their childhood friend. Bewildered, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern discuss how they might probe Hamlet for the cause of his supposed madness. They play a game of question-and-answer, further confusing themselves about their purpose and even their identities. Guildenstern suggests that he pretend to be Hamlet while Rosencrantz questions him. They realize that Hamlet’s disturbed state is due to the fact that his father, the former king of Denmark, has recently died, and the throne has been usurped by Hamlet’s uncle, Claudius, who also has married Hamlet’s mother, Gertrude. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern overhear Hamlet speaking riddles to Polonius. Hamlet confuses Rosencrantz and Guildenstern with an enigmatic speech. Polonius comes in to tell Hamlet that the Tragedians have arrived. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern despair about how little they learned of Hamlet’s feelings. They cannot decide whether he is insane. Polonius, Hamlet, and the Tragedians enter, and Hamlet announces that there will be a play the next day. Hamlet leaves, and Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and the Player discuss the possible causes of Hamlet’s strange behavior. The Player departs while Rosencrantz and Guildenstern discuss what happens after death. As Claudius, Gertrude, Polonius, and Ophelia enter, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern explain that Hamlet wants them all to attend the play. The group leaves, but Hamlet enters. Not noticing Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, Hamlet wonders whether he should commit suicide. Ophelia enters, praying. After a short conversation, she and Hamlet exit. Alfred, one of the Tragedians, arrives dressed as Gertrude. The other Tragedians enter to rehearse their play, which parallels Claudius’s rise to power and marriage to Gertrude. Ophelia enters, crying, followed by an angry Hamlet, who tells her to become a nun, then quickly departs. Claudius and Polonius enter and leave with Ophelia. The Player explains the tragic aspects of the Tragedians’ play, which metaphorically retells the recent events at Elsinore and foreshadows the deaths of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. They discuss whether death can be adequately represented on stage. The scene goes black. In darkness, voices indicate that the play has disturbed Claudius. The next day, Claudius and Gertrude ask Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to find Hamlet, who has killed Polonius. Alone again, the pair concocts a plan to trap Hamlet with 37 their belts, but they fail as Hamlet enters from an unexpected direction and immediately leaves, carrying the dead Polonius. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern call Hamlet back, but he refuses to say what he has done with Polonius’s body. Hamlet accuses Rosencrantz and Guildenstern of being Claudius’s tools. Hamlet escapes as Claudius enters, only to be brought back onstage under guard. The scene shifts outdoors, where Guildenstern tells Rosencrantz that they have to escort Hamlet to England. Hamlet arrives in conversation with a soldier. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern reluctantly depart. On the boat to England, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern wonder where they are and whether they might be dead. They notice Hamlet sleeping nearby, remember their mission, and consider what to do when they arrive. Guildenstern has a letter from Claudius, which reveals that Hamlet is to be executed in England. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern cannot decide what to do. As the pair sleeps, Hamlet switches the letter they were carrying with one he has written. The next morning, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern awake and hear music coming from barrels on-board the ship. To their surprise, the Tragedians emerge from the barrels just before pirates charge the ship. Hamlet, the Player, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern jump into the barrels, and the lights go down. When the lights come back up, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, and the Player come out of the barrels. Hamlet is gone. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tell the Player about the letter and rehearse what they will say to the English king. Guildenstern discovers that the letter now states that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are to be executed. The Tragedians encircle the pair. Despairing about his fate, Guildenstern takes a knife from the Player and stabs him. The Player cries out and falls, apparently dead. The Tragedians clap as the Player jumps up. He says that his death was a mediocre performance while showing Guildenstern that the knife was actually a stage prop. The Player describes the different deaths that his troupe can perform while the Tragedians act out those deaths onstage. Rosencrantz applauds, and the light shifts, leaving Rosencrantz and Guildenstern alone. Rosencrantz breaks down and leaves as he realizes his death is near. Guildenstern wonders how they were caught in this situation, lamenting that they failed to seize an opportunity to avert their fate. Guildenstern exits. The light changes, revealing the dead bodies of Claudius, Gertrude, Hamlet, and Laertes. Horatio arrives and delivers the final speech of Shakespeare’s Hamlet, as the music rises and lights fall. 38 Act I Part 1- Beginning of Play to Entrance of Tragedians (Note- each act is divided into parts for better understanding) Summary In a nondescript wilderness, Rosencrantz watches as Guildenstern flips coins. Each time a coin lands on heads, Rosencrantz gets to keep it. Guildenstern can hardly believe that Rosencrantz has amassed so many coins, but the coins keep coming up heads. He speculates that the two have entered an alternate universe, in which normal laws of probability, time, and chance do not apply. Unlike Guildenstern, Rosencrantz contentedly continues watching (and winning), not bothering to worry about why the coins keep landing heads up. Guildenstern speculates about possible reasons for the run of heads, including whether he is making his friend win as a way of subconsciously punishing himself, whether time has stopped, and whether a god of some kind has stepped in to influence their lives. He also begins to wonder if actions have ceased to exist in relation to one another. Guildenstern asks Rosencrantz to describe his earliest memory, but Rosencrantz forgets the question almost immediately. Guildenstern suddenly remembers that the pair has been “sent for.” Then he returns to his speculation about whether they have arrived somewhere in which the usual principles of the world do not apply. Frightened, he uses logic to reassure himself that they have not entered a parallel universe. But, still, he reasons that the coins have landed heads almost a hundred times, a sure sign that the laws of probability have ceased working. He hears music in the distance. As he trims his fingernails, Rosencrantz idly reminds Guildenstern that fingernails and facial hair continue to grow after a person has died. Rosencrantz then mentions that he does not remember ever cutting his toenails. These comments agitate Guildenstern, who asks Rosencrantz if he remembers anything from that morning. Rosencrantz recalls being woken by a stranger, an answer that calms Guildenstern. Rosencrantz says that they are on the road as a result of this stranger, who bade them to hurry up and go. But they do not know where they are going. Rosencrantz hears music but decides that he has only imagined it. Guildenstern claims that an audience makes any event real. The Tragedians enter. Analysis 39 Stoppard does not give much information about the location of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern or about the characters themselves. Instead, he expects the readers of his play to be familiar with Hamlet, on which so much of the plot of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead is based. Readers who know Hamlet will also know that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are traveling to Elsinore, having been sent for by Claudius, king of Denmark, to watch over Hamlet, the prince of Denmark. The nondescript road on which Rosencrantz and Guildenstern travel is actually the path to the royal castle. Neither Rosencrantz nor Guildenstern remembers the events of the morning very clearly, although they vaguely recall being woken by someone and asked to go somewhere. But now they seem to have no idea what they are doing or where they are. This inability to recall significant events, to understand their circumstances, or to exert any kind of meaningful control over their environment (noticeably they make no real effort to figure out where they are or what they are doing) continues throughout the play, as do Stoppard’s references to Hamlet. The first scene sets the conceptual framework for the remainder of Stoppard’s play. Their different responses to the coin tosses reflect the different personalities of Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Rosencrantz blithely flips a coin, notes it as heads, and pockets it, over and over again, never questioning why the coins keep coming up heads. Guildenstern, in contrast, worries that the two have entered an alternate universe, since standard laws of probability dictate that a coin has an equal chance of coming up heads or tails. The more coins Rosencrantz wins, the more frightened Guildenstern gets. When Rosencrantz tires of the coin flipping, he begins cutting his fingernails and imagining what happens to the nails after death, foreshadowing the deaths in Act III. His actions demonstrate a relaxed attitude toward the world: he generally believes that everything is and will be okay, and he has no interest in worrying about unknowns. Guildenstern, however, shows a more complicated range of emotions and thought patterns. While Rosencrantz passively accepts the results of the coin flipping, Guildenstern actively struggles to figure out what the results might mean. Unlike Rosencrantz, Guildenstern demonstrates a willingness to interpret and engage with the world around him. Act I Part 2- Entrance of Tragedians to First Change of Lights Summary 40 Six actors and a three-man band, collectively known as the Tragedians, arrive. Their leader, known as the Player, explains that the group will perform for a small fee. Rosencrantz introduces himself as Guildenstern but quickly realizes his mistake. Calling Rosencrantz and Guildenstern “fellow artists,” the Player goes on to list the group’s dramatic specialties, which include sexual performances that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern may participate in for an extra fee. Intrigued, Rosencrantz asks how much it would cost to watch but gets confused by the Player’s attempts to bargain. The Player offers to do practically anything for a few coins, but Rosencrantz misunderstands. The Tragedians prepare to leave. The Player says that they are heading to the court. Grabbing the Player, Guildenstern gets angry, only to relax by asking for more details about the performance. The Player responds by urging a young boy named Alfred to put on a skirt and prepare to perform. Disgusted, Guildenstern begins backing away, but the Player holds onto him. Guildenstern punches the Player, tells Alfred to undress, and criticizes the Tragedians for being prostitutes rather than actors. The Tragedians again begin to go. Rosencrantz stops the actors from leaving by asking what they would do for one coin, which he throws in the air. While the actors clamour to get at the coin, the Player stops them and hits Alfred. Embarrassed, Rosencrantz says that he intends to report on the Tragedians’ practices. Guildenstern stops the actors from leaving by offering them a bet. The Player calls heads and wins the coin. The Player spins the coin, Guildenstern calls heads, and Guildenstern wins. Guildenstern spins again, the Player calls heads, and the Player wins. Guildenstern wins the next round, but then the Player calls tails. Rather than look at the coin, Guildenstern covers it with his foot and says simply, “Heads.” The actors get angry at Guildenstern’s automatic assertion, so Guildenstern looks at the coin and claims to have won it. As the Player protests, Guildenstern spins several more coins, calls them heads, and claims to win each time. Guildenstern proposes a new bet: if the year of the Player’s birth doubled is even, he wins; if odd, the Player wins. Upon realizing that doubling any digit always produces an even number, the Player explains that they have no money to pay Guildenstern. He offers Alfred as payment instead. Alfred says that he dislikes being an actor. Guildenstern demands to know the actors’ repertoire of plays, because he wants to see a play as payment. Hesitating, the Player says that they belong to the “blood, love and rhetoric school.” The Player then begins giving his actors directions, all while explaining to Guildenstern that he never removes his actor’s outfit or gets out of character. The Player refuses to move around or off stage, until Rosencrantz approaches. As the Player moves away, everyone realizes that he has had his foot 41 on the flipped coin. Rosencrantz announces that the coin had actually landed tails, not heads, as was assumed. As he throws the coin to Guildenstern, the lights change. Analysis The interaction among the Tragedians, Rosencrantz, and Guildenstern introduces elements of homoeroticism into the play. The Player explains the very special brand of drama performed by the actors, one that lets the audience watch or, for more money, participate in sexual scenes. The Tragedians’ unique brand of performance confuses the two men, even though the group clearly fulfils an unacknowledged social need. Both Rosencrantz and Guildenstern feel alternately attracted to and repulsed by the Player’s offers. Guildenstern gets particularly angry about the exploitation of the young Alfred. He tells Alfred to take off his clothes, but whether Guildenstern means just the skirt Alfred has put on to perform in or everything he has on is not clear. The inability of readers to understand what Guildenstern actually means is important, as it points to the fact that he himself might be confused about his feelings: would he like to have a homosexual experience, or not? Is he sensitively protecting Alfred, or is he about to exploit the boy even further by forcing him to stand naked? Both Rosencrantz and Guildenstern seem unable to decide whether to pursue the sexual favours being offered to them, another instance in which they refuse to make an active choice or decision. The Player seems much smarter than both Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and he even appears to be aware of himself as a character within a play. He refers to the two men as “fellow artists,” even though Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are neither actors nor prostitutes. This label implies that the Player somehow realizes that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are actually two minor characters from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, which Stoppard has borrowed and transformed into the heroes of his play Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. This knowledge gives the Player a powerful aura of mystery and omnipotence. Later in the scene, the Player mentions that he never steps out of ch